Enthymemes and Argumentation
Schemes in Health Product Ads
July 8, Pasadena, California
Douglas Walton (CRRAR)
University of Windsor
http://www.dougwalton.ca
Introduction and Terminology
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This project applies argument argumentation schemes and the
visualization tool Araucaria to selected examples of health product
commercial ads found in recent issues of Newsweek.
Araucaria is a free software tool for mapping arguments. It was the
first such tool to use argumentation schemes, and it can be
downloaded from the following site:
http://araucaria.computing.dundee.ac.uk/
An enthymeme is an argument with a premise or conclusion that was
not explicitly stated in the text of discourse, for example, ‘All men are
mortal, therefore Socrates is mortal’.
An argumentation scheme is a structure made up of standard
premises and a standard conclusion representing stereotypical forms
of argument that are generally (but not always) defeasible.
An example is: E is an expert; E says that statement A is true;
therefore A can be tentatively accepted (subject to critical questioning
and retraction in light of new evidence that may suggest otherwise).
The aim is to identify the argumentation structures used in the ads.
Lunesta Sleep Medication Ad
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The picture in the ad shows the head and shoulders
of a young man asleep, his head resting against the
pillow.
In large print above the picture, the words “The
sleep you’ve been dreaming of.” are printed.
Below the picture it says, “Soothing Rest for Mind
and Body.”
Below that, the text of the ad appears [as quoted].
“It’s what you’ve been craving. Peaceful sleep
without a struggle. That’s what Lunesta is all about:
helping most people fall asleep quickly, and stay
asleep all through the night”.
Premises of Lunesta Argument
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Premise: my goal is to have peaceful sleep
without a struggle.
Premise: taking Lunesta is the best means
to have peaceful sleep without a struggle.
Premise: Lunesta helps most people fall
asleep quickly.
Premise: they stay asleep all through the
night.
Scheme for Practical Reasoning
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Major Premise: I have a goal G.
Minor Premise: Carrying out this action
A is a means to realize G.
Conclusion: Therefore, I ought
(practically speaking) to carry out this
action A.
Critical Questions for Scheme
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CQ1: What other goals do I have that should be
considered that might conflict with G?
CQ2: What alternative actions to my bringing about
A that would also bring about G should be
considered?
CQ3: Among bringing about A and these alternative
actions, which is arguably the most efficient?
CQ4: What grounds are there for arguing that it is
practically possible for me to bring about A?
CQ5: What consequences of my bringing about A
should also be taken into account?
Argument Map of Lunesta Ad
Mucinex Ad
When mucus gives you major congestion, you need a major
mucus fighter, new maximum strength Mucinex. Just one pill has
the most mucus fighting medicine available, to break up and
loosen congestion for a full 12 hours. In fact, it’s the longest lasting
nonprescription chest congestion medication you can buy. So
when maximum mucus happens to you, overpower it with
maximum strength Mucinex.
Argument Map of Mucinex Ad
Argument Map for Actos Ad
Text of the Plavix Ad
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The Plavix ad shows a picture of a woman, and beneath that it
says, “I have poor leg circulation. And I have a good reason to
try to reduce the risk of heart attack or stroke that comes with
it”. Below, more of the text of argumentation is quoted.
Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is often described as poor leg
circulation, which puts you at the double risk of heart attack or
stroke. That’s because, if you have poor blood circulation in
your legs, you may also have it in your heart and brain. You
may feel nothing, but the most common system symptom of
PAD is pain or heaviness in the legs. Take the next step. So if
you’re diagnosed with PAD, ask your doctor about a treatment
clinically proven to help reduce your risk of heart attack and
stroke associated with PAD. PLAVIX helps keep blood
platelets from sticking together and forming dangerous clots,
the cause of most heart attacks and strokes. Ask your doctor
about PLAVIX.
Defeasible Modus Ponens (DMP)
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Major Premise: If A then (defeasibly) B
Minor premise: A
Conclusion: B
Many of the schemes can be cast in
format so they fit under DMP.
Example: argument from expert
opinion.
Another example: the next scheme.
Argument from Positive Value
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Premise 1: Value V is positive as judged by
agent A (judgment of value).
Premise 2: The fact that value V is positive
affects the interpretation and therefore the
evaluation of goal G of agent A (If value V is
good, it supports commitment to goal G).
Conclusion: V is a reason for retaining
commitment to goal G.
Argument from Negative Value
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Premise 1: Value V is negative as judged by
agent A (judgment value).
Premise 2: The fact that value V is negative
affects the interpretation and therefore the
evaluation of goal G of agent A (If value V is
bad, it goes against commitment to goal G).
Conclusion: V is a reason for retracting
commitment to goal G.
Argument Map of Plavix Ad
Value-Based Practical Reasoning
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Premise 1: I have a goal G.
Premise 2: Bringing about A is
necessary (or sufficient) for me to bring
about G.
Premise 3: Bringing about A promotes
my set of values, V.
Conclusion: Therefore, I should
(practically ought to) bring about A.
Arg. from Correlation to Cause
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Premise: There is a positive correlation
between A and B. Conclusion
Conclusion: A causes B.
Critical Questions
CQ1: Is there really a correlation between A
and B?
CQ2: Is there any reason to think that the
correlation is any more than a coincidence?
CQ3: Could there be some third factor C,
that is causing both A and B?
The Dannon Yogurt Ad
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The advertising campaign called “In Soviet
Georgia”, designed by the Burson ad agency, was
run in various media from 1975 through to 1978.
The commercial, called Son of Russia, written by
Steve Kasloff, won the Clio award in 1978.
The commercials presented shots of elderly
Georgian farmers and the announcer said, “In
Soviet Georgia, where they eat a lot of yogurt, a lot
of people live past 100”.
Advertising Age ranked “In Soviet Georgia” as
number 89 on its list of the best of 100 greatest
advertising campaigns.
Argument Map of the Yogurt Ad
Conclusions
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Practical reasoning is the central argumentation scheme
around which the arguments in these ads are built.
Ads that have this practical reasoning structure as their core
argument structure have adopted what is commonly called the
problem/solution strategy in advertising.
Such ads appear to be very common, judging by the examples
we studied, but that may merely reflect a current trend.
Nonetheless, the project has shown how argumentation
mapping tools can be used to bring out interesting features of
real examples of arguments designed to persuade a target
audience/readership for commercial purposes.
Some of the examples led to analyses revealing implicit
assumptions and questionable inferences.
Some Useful Resources
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Argument Mapping Software
Araucaria: http://araucaria.computing.dundee.ac.uk/
Rationale: http://rationale.austhink.com/
Carneades: http://carneades.berlios.de/downloads/
Value-Based Practical Reasoning
Trevor Bench-Capon, ‘Persuasion in Practical Argument Using
Value-based Argumentation Frameworks’, Journal of Logic
and Computation, 13, 2003, 429-448.
Argumentation Schemes
Douglas Walton, Chris Reed and Fabrizio Macagno,
Argumentation Schemes, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 2008.