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Exceptional Children
and Youth, Third
Edition
Nancy Hunt
Kathleen Marshall
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1
Table of Contents
Slide(s)
Slide Title
Chapter
4–6
The Defining Characteristics of Early
Intervention
2
7–8
Four Essential Steps for Developing a Posture
of Cultural Reciprocity
3
9–11
Samples of Developmental Tasks for Families
with Young Children
3
12
Three Key Strategies for Coping Successfully
3
13
Building Blocks for Partnership with Families
3
Teaching Strategies for Students with
Attention Difficulties
4
Figure 4.2: Star Strategy
4
17–18
Steps for Direct Instruction in Reading
4
19–24
Strategies for Lesson Planning
4
14–15
16
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2
Slide(s)
25
Slide Title
Chapter
Simple Strategies for Teaching Students with
Mental Retardation
5
26–29
Table 6.1: Guidelines for Developing
Functional Communication Systems
6
30–33
Checklist for Positive Classroom Management
7
34–35
Considerations for Developing Communication
Skills
8
36–37
Elements of Effective Early Intervention
8
38–40
Table 9.3: The Path from Vocalization to
Speech
9
41–42
Table 10.4: Integrating Deaf Studies into the
Curriculum
10
43–44
Improving Education Quality
10
45–46
Aids for Students with Low Vision
11
47–48
Federal Definition of Giftedness
13
49–50
Eight Transition Support Strategies
14
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3
~ The Defining Characteristics
of Early Intervention
• Services are provided in varying locations,
either the child’s home, a center, or a
combination of home- and center-based
settings.
• Services are individualized, based on the
varying needs of children and their families,
and the individualized family service plan
(IFSP) is the document that outlines these
services.
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4
~ The Defining Characteristics
of Early Intervention (cont.)
• Services should be cross-disciplinary
and coordinated with one another.
• Depending on child and family needs,
disciplines represented may be education,
medicine, nursing, nutrition and dietetics,
social work, speech-language pathology
and audiology, occupational therapy, physical
therapy, and psychology.
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5
~ The Defining Characteristics
of Early Intervention (cont.)
• Since no one agency can provide all those
services, an interagency, collaborative approach
is necessary.
• A continuum of services must be available,
from comprehensive and intensive services
to those that may be short-term and limited.
• Services must be enmeshed in the broad range
of community services available to young
children, also referred to as “natural
environments.”
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6
~ Four Essential Steps for Developing
a Posture of Cultural Reciprocity
Step 1: Identify the cultural values
that are embedded in your interpretation
of a student’s difficulties or in the
recommendation for service.
Step 2: Find out whether the family being
served recognizes and values these
assumptions, and, if not, how their view
differs from yours.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
7
~ Four Essential Steps for Developing
a Posture of Cultural Reciprocity (cont.)
Step 3: Acknowledge and give explicit
respect to any cultural differences identified,
and fully explain the cultural basis of your
assumptions.
Step 4: Through discussion and
collaboration, set about determining the most
effective way of adapting your professional
interpretations or recommendations to the
value system of this family.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: Harry, B., Kalyanpur, M., & Day, M. (1999). Building
cultural reciprocity with families: Case studies in special
education (pp. 7–11). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
8
~ Samples of Developmental Tasks
for Families with Young Children
• Coming to terms with a diagnosis and
violation of expectations for a “perfect” child
• Negotiating the maze of fragmented services
• Becoming an advocate for the child
• Ensuring time for sustained positive
interactions with the child
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9
~ Samples of Developmental Tasks
for Families with Young Children (cont.)
• Nurturing a positive and pleasurable
relationship with the child
• Developing synchronous parent-child
interaction
• Maintaining relationships with other family
members (e.g., siblings, partner, or
extended family)
• Managing contextual challenges
(e.g., housing, nutrition)
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10
~ Samples of Developmental Tasks
for Families with Young Children (cont.)
• Clarifying a personal view of early childhood
and family services within one’s cultural
paradigm
• Adopting flexible family roles
• Building informal network of support
• Balancing work and caregiving demands
• Maintaining self-esteem and building sense
of competence as parents
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: S. Epps & B.J. Jackson (2000). Empowered families,
successful children, p. 34. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
11
Three Key Strategies
for Coping Successfully
• Attribute a cause to the event in order
to establish a sense of personal control.
• Acquire mastery, or a feeling of control,
in order to keep the adverse event from
occurring again.
• Enhance self-esteem by finding the
benefits or positive experiences that can
result from adverse events.
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12
~ Building Blocks for Partnership
with Families
The personal attributes and attitudes of the professional
can be at the crux of forming a partnership with families.
Among the important personal attributes are:
• Respect for families. Respect is based on the belief that
the family is the most important element in a child’s life,
and that the family is managing their situation to the best
of their ability (Beckman et al., 1996). Families sense
when respect is lacking, and lack of respect makes it
very difficult to build rapport between the professional
and family member.
• A nonjudgmental attitude.
• Empathy.
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13
~ Teaching Strategies for Students
with Attention Difficulties
Maintaining Attention
• Break long tasks or assignments into smaller
segments. Administer the smaller segments
throughout the day, if a shorter assignment
isn’t acceptable.
• Present limited amounts of information
on a page.
• Gradually increase the amount of time a student
must attend to a task or lecture.
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14
~ Teaching Strategies for Students
with Attention Difficulties (cont.)
Selective Attention
• Use prompts and cues to draw attention to important
information. Types of cues include:
1. Written cues, such as highlighting directions on tests
or activity sheets
2. Verbal cues, such as using signal words to let students
know they are about to hear important information
3. Instructional cues, such as having students paraphrase
directions or other information to you
• Teach students a plan for identifying and highlighting
important information themselves.
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15
Figure 4.2
Star Strategy
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16
Steps for Direct Instruction
in Reading
1. Identify specific objectives based on
importance of skills.
2. Whenever possible, develop strategies or plans
for students to follow to accomplish specific
objectives (such as a strategy for decoding
words).
3. Develop teaching formats and procedures
before instruction begins. Only one concept at
a time should be presented during each lesson.
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17
Steps for Direct Instruction
in Reading (cont.)
4. Select examples for instruction:
• Examples teach the critical aspects of concepts.
• Examples teach when and how to use skills.
• Examples provide practice and demonstration.
5. Sequence skills carefully. Ask yourself:
• What preskills are needed first?
• What skills are easiest, and which more difficult?
• What skills are least important, and which are most
important?
6. Provide sufficient opportunities for practice,
and continually review learning.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: Direct Instruction Reading, Third Edition by
Carnine/Silbert/Karmeenui, Copyright © 1990. Adapted by
permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.
18
~ Strategies for Lesson Planning
1. Identify all of the new skills being taught in the
lesson. More than one is too many. Sequence
the skills according to the hierarchy of content,
and choose the first one in the sequence.
2. Identify the preskills the student needs.
If the text does not provide a review
of the preskills, prepare one.
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19
~ Strategies for Lesson Planning
(cont.)
3. Review the introduction and actual teaching
part of the lesson. A surprising number of
textbooks include very little instruction.
• Is the skill or concept clearly identified and described
at the beginning of the lesson? In most cases, you
should avoid open-ended questions at the beginning
of the lesson (for example, “Who thinks they know
what a pronoun is?”). You are likely to get incorrect
answers and guesses that will create confusion.
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20
~ Strategies for Lesson Planning
(cont.)
• Are there plenty of positive examples of the skill or
concept being taught? Are there negative or
incorrect examples that require the student to
discriminate and actually identify the fundamental
parts of the skill? If not, prepare additional examples
in advance. Try to begin all instruction with positive
or correct examples—too many texts begin with
examples of errors. The first example students see
is the one they will remember!
• Think of a rule or cue to help the student learn the
skill more efficiently.
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21
~ Strategies for Lesson Planning
(cont.)
4. Look at the opportunities for practice presented
in the manual and student text.
• Is there a lot of guided practice and opportunity for
response before the student has to work alone?
Practice with the teacher gives the student a chance
to learn the skill and allows the teacher to correct
any errors right away. You may have to develop
some practice examples.
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22
~ Strategies for Lesson Planning
(cont.)
5. Examine application exercises or “written
practice” activities.
• Do the independent activities reflect the skill that
was taught? Sometimes the independent activities
require students to perform tasks that were not done
during oral practice. Do not assume the student will
know how to do this task, just because he or she
could do the oral practice tasks. For example, if a
language arts lesson revolves around identifying the
parts of a sentence, the student should be expected
only to identify the parts of a sentence, not write a
complete sentence.
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23
~ Strategies for Lesson Planning
(cont.)
• Are the language and reading requirements
appropriate for your student? If the purpose of the
activity is to assess the acquisition of a new skill,
make sure other skills aren’t interfering. You can
always rewrite a practice sentence or substitute an
alternative example.
• Is the right amount of independent work provided? Is
there enough practice to show you the student has
mastered the skill, but not so much that the amount
is overwhelming? No one needs to find the least
common denominator for a hundred pairs of
fractions to show that she knows how to do it.
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24
Simple Strategies for Teaching
Students with Mental Retardation
• Teach students in small groups (three or four
students).
• Teach one concept or skill at a time.
• Teach steps or strategies for learning (a plan
for remembering or sequencing information).
• Provide ample opportunity for practice (practice
often, but don’t overload).
• Use prompts to promote correct responding
(examples, modeling, physical guidance).
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
25
Table 6.1 Guidelines for Developing Functional
Communication Systems
1. Take advantage of the existing communication
skills of students with severe disabilities.
• Observe the communication strategies students
already use to communicate. Ask yourself: What
forms of communication does this student
consistently and intentionally use to communicate?
Observe these forms across settings, routines,
and activities.
• Build on existing types of communicative behavior
by teaching socially desirable and functionally
equivalent forms of behavior that are more easily
understood by others.
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26
Table 6.1 Guidelines for Developing Functional
Communication Systems (cont.)
2. Select functional communication targets and
identify powerful teaching opportunities.
• When selecting communication targets, ask yourself:
Will learning this behavior help the student become
more independent?
• Select potential teaching opportunities that will likely
result in high levels of motivation by capitalizing on
current student-initiated communicative occasions.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
27
Table 6.1 Guidelines for Developing Functional
Communication Systems (cont.)
3. Facilitate the widespread use of the new forms
of behavior.
• Identify the situations in which students currently use
their existing communication forms (e.g.,
generalized use of the existing form).
• Determine the consequences that might be
supporting this generalization.
• Teach the new communication form in all situations
where the student currently uses the existing form.
Careful attention to, and reflection on, one’s own
behavior and prudent observation of student
behavior are necessary.
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28
Table 6.1 Guidelines for Developing Functional
Communication Systems (cont.)
4. Ensure maintenance of the new behavior.
• When replacing existing forms of communicative
behavior, take care to ensure that the new form
requires less physical effort, and produces
reinforcement more rapidly and more frequently than
the old one.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: Ostrosky, M. M., Drasgow, E., & Halle, J. W. (1999).
“How can I help you get what you want?”, Teaching
Exceptional Children, 31 (4), 58.
29
~ Checklist for Positive Classroom
Management
1. The teacher interacts positively with the
student.
Y
N
2. The teacher communicates high
expectations to the student.
Y
N
3. Opportunities are provided for the
students to become acquainted.
Y
N
4. Students are actively involved with peers
through cooperative learning or peer
tutoring.
Y
N
5. Classroom procedures are taught to
students, who demonstrate
understanding of the procedures.
Y
N
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
30
~ Checklist for Positive Classroom
Management (cont.)
6. Students’ instructional programs are
appropriate to their needs, skill levels,
learning styles.
Y
N
7. The subject matter is relevant to the
students’ lives and they understand
the connection.
Y
N
8. Students understand the teacher’s
instructional goals and why teaching
strategies are being used to achieve
these goals.
Y
N
9. Students have been involved in some
form of academic goal setting and
recording.
Y
N
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
31
~ Checklist for Positive Classroom
Management (cont.)
10. The assessment system motivates the
student to make good effort.
Y
N
11. Rules for managing student behavior
are appropriate, succinct, stated
positively, and applied to all.
Y
N
12. Consequences for inappropriate
behavior are clear to all students
Y
N
13. Consequences are educational,
respectful, and implemented
consistently.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Y
N
32
~ Checklist for Positive Classroom
Management (cont.)
14. Students demonstrate understanding
of rules and consequences.
Y
N
15. If a problem arises, the teacher meets
privately with the student to discuss
the problem and jointly develop a plan
to help.
Y
N
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: Vern Jones, “Responding to Student Behavior Problems,”
Beyond Behavior (Winter 1990), p. 20. Published by the Council for
Children with Behavior Disorders, Council for Exceptional Children,
1920 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.
33
Table 8.1 Considerations for Developing
Communication Skills
• Make the communication an integral part of the child’s
life in and out of school.
• Communication, rather that rote responses, should be
the goal.
• Emphasize spontaneous speech, whether pictorial,
gestural, or verbal.
• Give the child many opportunities to communicate in all
settings.
• Any socially acceptable attempt to communicate should
be reinforced in all settings.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
34
Table 8.1 Considerations for Developing
Communication Skills (cont.)
• Communication goals should be part of any plan
to change maladaptive behavior.
• Initial communication goals should target obtaining items
and activities that the student finds reinforcing.
• Communication goals should be developmentally
and chronologically appropriate.
• Work together with all significant people in the student’s
environment to make the communication training as
consistent as possible.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: J. Scott, C. Clark, and M. Brady, Students with
Autism: Characteristics and Instruction Programming (San
Diego: Singular, 2000), p. 225.
35
~ Elements of Effective Early
Intervention Programs
1. Curriculum content that emphasizes five
basic skill areas
•
•
•
•
•
Attention to aspects of the environment
Motoric and visual imitation of others
Receptive and expressive language
Developmentally appropriate play with toys
Social interaction
2. Supportive teaching environments
incorporating generalization strategies
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36
~ Elements of Effective Early
Intervention Programs (cont.)
3. Predictability and routine
4. Functional assessment of problem
behaviors
5. Skills to transition students out of the
preschool class
6. Involvement of parents and other family
members
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: G. Dawson and J. Osterling (1997), “Early Intervention
in Autism,” in M. J. Suralnick (ed.), The Effectiveness of Early
Intervention (Baltimore: Brookes).
37
Table 9.3 The Path from Vocalization
to Speech
Stage
Characteristic Behavior
Phonation (0–2 mos.)
Produces vowel-like sounds with
vocal tract at rest.
Produces reflexive sounds such
as cries, grunts, hiccoughs,
sneezes, which may sound
consonantal.
Primitive articulation (1–4
mos.)
Produces coos and gurgles,
which are primitive syllables using
vowel sounds and some velar
(back) sounds.
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38
Table 9.3 The Path from Vocalization
to Speech (cont.)
Stage
Characteristic Behavior
Expansion (3–8 mos.)
Produces more vowel sounds.
Explores pitch through squeals,
growls, yells, whispers,
raspberries.
Repeats particular sound types in
vocal play.
Canonical syllable (5–10
mos.)
Produces babbling, which
consists of well-formed syllables
with combinations of consonants
and vowels.
Reduplicates sequences of these
syllables, such as “ba-ba-ba.”
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39
Table 9.3 The Path from Vocalization
to Speech (cont.)
Stage
Characteristic Behavior
Integrative (9–18 mos.)
Produces variegated sequences
of babbling syllables.
Mixes babbling and speech.
Begins transition to meaningful
speech (first words).
Note: These stages are based on age ranges. One infant may enter a
new stage earlier or later than another infant.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: D. K. Oller and M. P. Lynch, “Infant Vocalizations and
Innovations in Infraphonology,” in C. A. Ferguson, L. Menn, and C.
Stoel-Gammon, eds., Phonological Development: Models, Research,
Implications (Timonium, MD: York Press, 1992), pp. 509–536. Used
by permission.
40
Table 10.4 Integrating Deaf Studies
into the Curriculum
Grade Level
Content Area Topics
Deaf Culture
Components
Kindergarten
Science/Social Studies:
sound awareness and
Deaf awareness
Basics for interacting with
Deaf people
First grade
Social Studies: family life
of the Deaf
Deafness and communication
Second grade
Social Studies: Deaf
people in the community
Sensitivity activities, ASL as a
language
Third grade
Sound, hearing
measurement, and
amplification
Deaf vs. hard of hearing,
social interaction norms
Fourth grade
Reading: biography and
history of Deaf people
Deaf history, Deaf identity,
interview Deaf adult
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
41
Table 10.4 Integrating Deaf Studies
into the Curriculum (cont.)
Grade Level
Content Area Topics
Deaf Culture
Components
Fourth grade
Reading: biography and
history of Deaf people
Deaf history, Deaf identity,
interview Deaf adult
Fifth grade
Health: hearing and
deafness
Deaf community,
organizations, and recreation
Sixth grade
Science: communication
and assistive devices for
the Deaf
Deafness and literature, Deaf
values
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: David A. Stewart and Thomas Kluwin (2001).
Teaching Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students: Content,
Strategies, and Curriculum (p. 118). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
42
~ Improving Educational Quality
Considerations for the IEP. When writing an IEP for
a child with hearing loss, the team should consider
the following:
• The child’s communication needs and the family’s
preferred mode of communication
• Severity of hearing loss and potential for using residual
hearing
• Academic level
• Social, emotional, and cultural needs, including
opportunities for peer interactions and communication
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
43
~ Improving Educational Quality
(cont.)
Least Restrictive Environment. The least restrictive
environment for the child who is deaf is the setting
that best meets the child’s needs, including
communication needs. In some cases, the general
education classroom may not be the least
restrictive environment.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: U.S. Department of Education, “Guidelines for
Educational Programs for Deaf Students,” Federal Register
(1992), pp. 49275–49276.
44
~ Aids for Students with Low Vision
• Optical aids, such as a hand-held magnifying
glass
• Closed-circuit television (CCTV) sets that
enlarge printed material onto a screen
• Computer software that varies type size
and typeface
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45
~ Aids for Students with Low Vision
(cont.)
• Computer hardware such as large monitor
screens and screen magnifiers
• Large-print textbooks
• Materials used to provide greater contrast in
written and printed matter: yellow acetate, boldline paper, felt-tip markers
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: Adapted from G. J. Zimmerman, “Optics and Low Vision
Devices,” in A. L. Corn and A. J. Koenig (eds.), Foundations of Low
Vision: Clinical and Functional Perspectives (New York: AFB Press,
1996).
46
Federal Definition of Giftedness
The federal government definition of giftedness
states that gifted children are those
who give evidence of high performance capability in
areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership
capacity, or specific academic fields, and who require
services or activities not ordinarily provided by the
school in order to fully develop such capabilities.
(P.L. 97-35, Education Consolidation and Improvement
Act, sec. 582, 1981)
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
47
Federal Definition of Giftedness (cont.)
The federal definition specifies areas of giftedness;
it allows for gifted traits and gifted behaviors; and it
ties in the definition of giftedness with the need to
provide special educational programs for children
identified as gifted. Overall, it is a comprehensive
definition that has been adopted enthusiastically
by many states.
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48
~ Eight Transition Support
Strategies
These support strategies are validated by
transition service providers.
• Promote acceptance in the environment.
• Identify environmental support and provide
needed changes within the environment.
• Identify and provide social support from
employers, coworkers, peers, and family.
• Teach self-management.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
49
~ Eight Transition Support
Strategies (cont.)
• Provide opportunities to learn and practice
social skills.
• Provide opportunities for choice making.
• Identify student’s strengths and areas needing
support.
• Observe and identify student’s opportunities
for choice.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company
Source: C. Hughes et al., “Practitioner-Validated Secondary
Transition Support Strategies,” Education and Training in
Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities 32
(1997), 205.
50