Performance = Ability x Motivation
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Self-Actualization
Self-Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Safety Needs
Basic needs
Physiological Needs
Equity Theory
Social comparison process where motivation is due to perceptions of inequity
Person
Comparison Other
(forms a ratio of (can be a co-worker,
inputs to
yourself in the past,
outcomes and an ideal)
compares this
ratio to a
comparison other)
Inputs (e.g.,
experience, effort,
skill, education)
Outcomes (e.g., $,
benefits, flexibility,
autonomy,
responsibility,
promotion)
Equity Theory Example
Overpayment (receiving
greater outcomes to inputs
compared to another)
Underpayment (receiving
less outcomes to inputs
compared to another)
Person: 50/75
Person: 50/50
Other:
Other:
50/50
50/75
Result:
Result:
Hourly work (salaried position) :
Hourly work (salaried position):
Greater input (e.g., effort) to
reduce the perceive inequity
regarding the quantity and quality
of goods
Less input (e.g., effort) to
produce less number and poorer
quality of goods
Piece rate: Greater input to
produce better quality goods
Piece rate: Greater input to
produce more quantity of goods
but with less quality
Inequity Options
Behavioral Options to reduce perceived inequity:
1) Change outcomes (e.g., ask for a raise)
2) Get other to change their inputs to outcomes (e.g., slow down their
rate of production
3) Find new work (e.g., quit the job, get a job transfer)
Cognitive Options to reduce perceived inequity:
1) Distort one’s own inputs or outcomes (e.g., “I’m not really working
that hard,” “I have a lot of free time”)
2) Distort the inputs or outcomes of others (e.g., he/she gets more
money than me but they have to live in Buffalo)
3) Change the comparison other
Expectancy Theory
Rewards
(Outcomes)
Pay
Work Conditions
Valences
(attractiveness of
outcomes rated on a
scale from -10 to
+10. A valence is
given to each job
outcome)
7
(the perceived
relationship
between
performance
and attained
outcomes from
0 to 1.0. One
.75 instrumentality
for each
.50
valence)
.30
3
.10
9
6
Benefits
Autonomy
Instrumentality
Expectancy
(perceived
relationship
between effort
and
performance; 0
to 1.0. There is
only one
expectancy
value)
Motivation force = (V x I) + (V x I) + (V x I) + (V x I) x E
Reinforcement Theory
Stimulus
Response
Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed Interval (FI) e.g., reinforcement by the hour or week
• Fixed Ratio (FR) e.g., reinforce based on piece rate on the
number of goods produced, behaviors performed
• Variable Interval (VI) e.g., reinforcement based on random
passage of time
• Variable Ratio (VR) e.g., random (variable) reinforcement
based on the number of goods produced, behaviors performed
(such as gambling)
Goal Setting
Goal
Awareness
Goal
Acceptability
Knowledge of behaviors
needed to achieve goals
It is best for goals to be:
• Challenging (difficult)
• Specific
Feedback
Reasons Why Goals Setting Works (Mechanisms)
• Directs actions of employees
• Aids in the development of strategies
• Energizes actions/behaviors
Fulfilling valued goals
leads to self-satisfaction
and creates incentives
to intensify efforts
• Promotes persistence
Possible Limitations:
• Competition
• Production of undesirable behaviors (e.g., unethical, not reporting
goal-damaging behaviors)
• Focus on certain performance criteria (e.g., quantity vs. quality)
~ Some Goal Setting Issues~
• Effectiveness of assigned versus participative goal setting
a) Role of authority figure
b) Creation of confidence in employees (high self-efficacy)
c) Creates challenge
d) Helps to define standards for employees
• Role of goal acceptability and difficult goals (low expectancy goals; one’s where the
probability for success is low)
• Satisfaction (easy goals) versus motivation (difficult goals)
a) Use of moderately difficult goals
b) Different points used for easy and difficult goals
c) Make goals incrementally more difficult (accomplishing earlier, easier
goals can lead to satisfaction)
 Interaction of goal setting and feedback (One without the other does not work)
Goal Setting Model
Moderating Factors
Goal Commitment
Feedback
Ability
Task Complexity
Situational constraints
Specific,
High Goals
High
Expectancy
Self-Efficacy
Mediating Mechanisms
Effort
Persistence
Direction
Task Strategies (plans)
High
Performance
Contingent &
Non-Contingent
Rewards
Satisfaction
(and anticipated satisfaction)
Commitment to the
Organization and its Goals
Self-Efficacy: Beliefs about one’s capabilities to produce a desired
level of performance and to control events
“Whether you think you can or you can’t, you’re usually right.” --- Henry Ford
“If I have the belief that I can do it, I shall surely acquire the capacity to so it even if I
may not have it at the beginning.” --- Mahatma Gandhi
“A man who doubts himself is like a man who would enlist in the ranks of his
enemies and bear arms against himself. He makes his failure certain by himself
being the first person to be convinced of it.” --- Alexandre Dumas
“Self confidence is the first requisite to great undertakings.” --- Samuel Johnson
Sample Self-Efficacy Items
• I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough
• I someone opposes me, I can find means and ways to get what I want.
• It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals.
• I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events.
• Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations.
• I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort.
• I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities.
• If I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions.
• If I am in trouble, I can usually think of something to do.
• No matter what comes my way, I’m usually able to handle it.
Feelings
Thoughts
Perceived self-efficacy
Motivation
Behavior
Failure: Attributions, resilience, effort, and future goal levels
Bulk of
motivation is due
to our thoughts
about what we
can do, and the
anticipation of the
likely outcomes
of our behaviors
Job Characteristics Model
Critical
Psychological
States
Core Job
Dimensions
Personal & Work
Outcomes
Combine Tasks
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy
Put tasks into
natural work units
Customer contact
Meaningfulness
of work
• High intrinsic
work motivation
• High quality of
work performance
Vertically load
jobs
Feedback
Open feedback
channels
Responsibility
for work
outcomes
Knowledge of
work results
• High satisfaction
with work
• Low absenteeism
and turnover
Employee Growth
Need Strength
Motivation Potential Score = (Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance) /3 x Autonomy x Feedback
Sample Questions From The Job Diagnostic Survey
• How much autonomy is there in your job? That is, to what extent does your job permit you
to decide on your own how to go about doing the work?
1
2
Very little; the job gives
me almost no personal
“say” about how and
when the work is done
3
4
5
6
Moderate autonomy; many things
are standardized and not under
my control, but I can make some
decisions about the work
7
Very much; the job gives me
almost complete responsibility
for deciding how and when the
work is done
• How significant or important is your job? That is, are the results of your work likely to
significantly affect the lives or well-being of other people?
1
2
3
Not very significant; the
outcomes of my work are
not likely to have
important effects on
other people
4
5
6
Moderately significant
7
Highly significant; the
outcomes of my work can
affect other people in
very important ways
• To what extent do managers and co-workers tell you how well you are doing on your job?
1
Very little; people almost
never let me know how
well I am doing
2
3
4
Moderately; sometimes
people may give me
“feedback,” other times
they may not
5
6
7
Very much; managers or coworkers provide me with
almost constant “feedback”
about how well I’m doing
Developing Self-Determination
“Intrinsically motivated behavior is by
definition self-determined. It is done
freely for the inherent satisfaction
associated with certain activities and
with undertaking optimal challenge”
(Deci & Ryan, 1987)
Motivation: SDT
What/where are people’s motivational incentives?
Extrinsic
Motivation
The gains we make from
the activity motivate us
(e.g., money, power,
prestige, endorsements)
Intrinsic
Motivation
The activity itself is
rewarding; you are
interested, and enjoy doing it
A Look at Rewards for Motivation
• Good jump ropers during recess were chosen and put in
three conditions.
• Following the intervention, which group will jump rope
during recess more?
Expected reward:
Unexpected reward:
Control / No reward:
Students were told
if they did a good
job, they would get
a “good jumper”
badge. All got a
badge.
Students were
awarded a “good
jumper” badge after
doing a good job on
the task. All got a
badge.
Students jumped rope,
but were not told of a
reward, and were not
given one.
Intrinsic Motivation
Overall Motivation = Internal + External Rewards
Individuals who
intrinsically
enjoy their work
Why?
Increase extrinsic
(external) rewards
(e.g., pay)
Intrinsic
Motivation
Extrinsic
Motivation
Can lead to
lowered
intrinsic
motivation
• Extrinsic (external) factors now
partially account for why
individuals are motivated to
perform a given task
• External rewards limit people’s
sense of self-determination
Tangible extrinsic rewards reliably undermine intrinsic motivation under most circumstances.
The most detrimental reward contingency involves giving rewards as a direct function of people's
performance. This is the one most often used in life, seems to be the one that is most detrimental to
the motivation, performance, and well-being. http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/cont_reward.html