Chapter 5
Motivation at Work
Motivation
Willingness to exert
high levels of effort
toward organizational
goals.
Conditioned by the
effort’s ability to
satisfy some individual
need.
The Basic Motivation Behavior
Sequence
What Motivates People at
Work?
External Incentives
Vary by the individual
Self-interest
Economic gain
Social
Interpersonal
What Motivates People at
Work?
Internal needs
Variables within the individual
Enlightened self-interest
Individual interests & benefits
Protestant work ethic
Hierarchy of needs
Cultural differences affect motivation
Early Motivation Theories
Psychological theories emphasized internal
needs; ignored individual diversity
Economic theories emphasized extrinsic
incentives; technology was a force multiplier
Process theory emphasized nature of
interaction between individual and the
environment
External theories focused on environmental
elements such as, behavioral consequences
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
SA
Esteem
Love (Social)
Safety & Security
Physiological
Motivational Theories X & Y
SA
Esteem
Love (Social)
Safety & Security
Physiological
Theory Y - a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals
motivated by higherorder needs
Theory X - a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals
motivated by lowerorder needs
McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on
Theory X
Naturally indolent
Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to
be led
Inherently self-centered and indifferent to
organizational needs
Naturally resistant to change
Gullible, not bright, ready dupes
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M.
McGregor reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957
American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of
American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved.
http://www.amanet.org.
McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on
Theory Y
Experiences in organizations result in passive and
resistant behaviors; they are not inherent
Motivation, development potential, capacity for
assuming responsibility, readiness to direct
behavior toward organizational goals are present
in people
Management’s task—arrange conditions and
operational methods so people can achieve their
own goals by directing efforts to organizational
goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor reprinted from Management Review,
November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management
Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
SA
Esteem
Love (Social)
Safety & Security
Physiological
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
How Financial Rewards Meet Needs
Develop a talent you have
always wanted to explore.
Self Actualizaton
A pay raise that
recognizes your value to
the firm.
Esteem
Purchase equipment to
join a sports team.
Purchase an insurance
policy.
Food, clothing, rent.
Social
Security
Physiological
Organizational Examples
Self Actualization
Esteem
Social
Security
Physiological
Challenging Work Opportunity to Grow
Job Title –
Recognition
Friends at Work Sports Teams
Pension Plan Insurance
Salary to Purchase
Basic Needs
Diagnose Employees’ Needs and Find
Ways of Motivating Them by Satisfying
the Needs
MASLOW’S
HIERARCHY
OF
NEEDS
ALDERFER’S
HIERARCHY
OF
NEEDS
SelfGrowth
Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
and Love
Safety and Security
Physiological
Relatedness
Existence
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
maintenance factor
contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related to the
satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
job enrichment
leads to superior performance & effort
Motivation-Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
Hygienepolicy
factors
• Company
&
administration
must
• Supervision
be
present
to
avoid
• Interpersonal relations
job conditions
• Working
• Salary
dissatisfaction
• Status
• Security
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction
Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
Motivators Worker Satisfaction. Hygiene
Factors Worker Dissatisfaction.
HYGIENE FACTORS
Job
Dissatisfaction
No Job
Dissatisfaction
•Pay
•Status
•Security
•Working Conditions
•Fringe Benefits
•Policies and Administrative Practices
•Interpersonal Relations
MOTIVATORS
No Job
Satisfaction
Job
Satisfaction
•Meaningful Work
•Challenging Work
•Recognition for Accomplishments
•Feeling of Achievement
•Increased Responsibility
•Opportunities for Growth
and Advancement
•The Job Itself
Motivation-Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
Hygienepolicy
factors
• Company
&
administration
must
• Supervision
be
present
to
avoid
• Interpersonal relations
job conditions
• Working
• Salary
dissatisfaction
• Status
• Security
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction
Motivation factors increase
job satisfaction
•
•
•
•
•
•
Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
• Salary?
Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
Resultant Job Conditions
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
High M
Low M
high
motivation
low
motivation
High H
few complaints
few complaints
high
motivation
low
motivation
Low H
many complaints many complaints
Manifest Need Theory:
Need for Achievement
Need for Achievement - a
manifest (easily
perceived) need that
concerns individuals’
issues of excellence,
competition, challenging
goals, persistence, and
overcoming difficulties
Manifest Need Theory:
Need for Power
Need for Power - a
manifest (easily
perceived) need that
concerns an individual’s
need to make an impact on
others, influence others,
change people or events,
and make a difference in
life
Manifest Need Theory:
Need for Affiliation
Need for Affiliation - a
manifest (easily
perceived) need that
concerns an individual’s
need to establish and
maintain warm, close,
intimate relationships
with other people
3 Motivational Need Theories
Maslow
[
Alderfer
Self Actualization
Higher
Order
needs
Esteem
self
interpersonal
Belongingness
Lower
Order
needs
[
Safety & security
interpersonal
physical
Physiological
]
]
]
Growth
McClelland
Need for
Achievement
Need for
Power
Relatedness
Existence
Need for
affiliation
Motivational Theory
of Social Exchange
Person
Equity
Comparison
Other
Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs
Inputs
Negative
Inequity
Outcomes <
Inputs
Outcomes
Inputs
Positive
Inequity
Outcomes >
Inputs
Outcomes
Inputs
Strategies for
Resolution of Inequity
Alter the person’s outcomes
Alter the person’s inputs
Alter the comparison other’s outputs
Alter the comparison other’s inputs
Change who is used as a comparison other
Rationalize the inequity
Leave the organizational situation
Managers Can Help Employees
Perceive Their Work Situation As
Equitable
A’s outputs
B’s outputs
A’s outputs
B’s outputs
A’s Inputs
B’s Inputs
Inequity = Problem with Motivation
A’s Inputs
B’s Inputs
Equity = No Problem with Motivation
Employee Responses to Perceived Inequities
What happens when inequities exist?
If person A believes an inequity exists and her ratio is too small, she may
•reduce her inputs
•ask for more outputs
•change her comparison person
•rationalize that equity exists
•leave the situation
If person B believes an inequity exists, and his ratio is too large, he may
•increase his inputs
•ask for reduced outputs
•change his comparison person
•rationalize that equity exists
•leave the situation
Table 4-1
New Perspectives
on Equity Theory
Equity Sensitive
I prefer an equity
ratio equal to that of
my comparison other
New Perspectives
on Equity Theory
Benevolent
I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
less than that of my
comparison other
New Perspectives
on Equity Theory
Entitled
I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
greater than that of
my comparison other
Expectancy Theory of
Motivation:
Key Constructs
Valence - value or importance placed on
a particular reward
Expectancy - belief that effort leads
to performance
Instrumentality - belief that
performance is related to rewards
Expectancy Model of Motivation
Effort
Effort
Performance
Perceived effortPerformance
probability
Perceived
performancereward probability
“If I work hard,
will I get the job
done?”
Reward
Perceived
value of reward
“What rewards
“What rewards
will I get when
do I value?”
the job is done?”
Determinants of Performance
Individual
Differences
Work Effort
(Motivation)
Organizational
Support
Job
Performance
Reward System
Organization provides inducements
pay, benefits, vacation, status
In return for individual contributions
time, effort, knowledge, skills, creativity
Inducements
Individuals
Organization
Contributions
What is an effective
reward?
A Reward Is Effective When
It Is...
available
performance contingent
timely
reversible
valuable
What Types of Rewards Are
Available in Organizations?
Types of Rewards
Economic rewards
money
benefits
perks
Non-economic rewards
prestige
job content
Multiple Means of Pay
Merit Pay
Creative Pay Practices
Skill based pay
Gain-sharing plans
lump-sum pay increases
Flexible benefit plans
Managing pay as an extrinsic reward
Some Rules for Effective Rewards
Differentiate the rewards
Reward promptly
Give feedback
Give positive feedback publicly
Give negative feedback privately
Match consequences and behaviors
Individual & Situation Factors
Affect Motivation & Performance
•Ability
•Commitment
•Feedback
•Complexity
•Situational
Constraints
Demands Made
on Employee
Specified
Goals
PERFORMANCE
•Attention
•Effort
•Persistence
