STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Despite decades of research and intervention, juvenile delinquency remains a major concern
around the world. Several studies showed that early problem behavior is a stepping-stone to
more serious crime and recidivism in later adolescence and young adult years (Howell, 2001;
Krohn, Thornberry, Rivera, & Le Blanc, 2001). Many previous studies on delinquency only
examine cross-sectional data. Many Sscholars have argued that longitudinal data, which includes
the repeated assessment of individuals over time, is necessary to examine the developmental
trajectory of juvenile delinquency (Chung, Hawkins, Gilchrist, Hill & Nagin, 2002; Fergusson,
Horwood & Nagin, 2000). Past Jjuvenile delinquency research has focusesd on the differences
between offenders and non-offenders,. and therefore has not considered Therefore, the possibility
of individual trajectories, is not present in the current research as a result. However, more
Rrecently, there has been an emphasis on researchers are examining differences within offender
groups to identify distinctive developmental trajectories and varying degrees of delinquency
(Sampson & Laub, 2003). However, there is little research has been conducted that includes
these distinct patterns. Further, juvenile delinquency is increasingly becoming a global issue. For
example, as the populations of immigrants and interracial couples grows fast in the U.S., they
may also potentially bring cultural values, affecting and it can affect not only both native-born,
but also and foreign-born adolescents to be more or less vulnerable to juvenile delinquency.
Given its prevalence and potential consequences, it is imperative to investigate juvenile
delinquency and its different patterns across different cultures. To examine juvenile delinquency
with the goal In order to reduce and prevent such these problematic behaviors, it is important to
identify factors that contribute to them deter or promote such behavior. In tThe majority of
criminological theories, consider parental behaviors are considered to be as one of the most
important predictors of juvenile delinquency (Akers & Sellers, 2004). Specifically, many studies
have suggested that parental warmth is a strong protective factor of delinquency (Buehler, 2006;
Windle et al., 2010). Although many studies document a negative association between parental
warmth and delinquency, some showed that parental warmth increasesd the degree of
delinquency involvement because adolescents could potentially perceive parental warmth as
approval of their involvement in delinquent activities (Walker-Barnes & Mason, 2004). Mason
(2001) identifiesd methodological limitations as a reason to explain for these mixed results and
analyzesd the relationship between the two variables with latent growth curve modeling (LGM),
which could explain the individual differences in developmental trajectories. Further, the
perception of parental warmth and its association with delinquency may be different in the U.S.
vs. in comparison to other countries, like South Korea. Many studies also have demonstrated the
effect of other important factors on delinquency including gender of adolescent, the stability of
family, and socioeconomic status (SES). Therefore, the main purpose of this grant application is
to examine (a) the distinctive trajectories of delinquency in the U.S. and South Korea, (b) the
association between parental warmth and juvenile delinquency over time in both countries, and
(c) the effect of other factors (i.e., gender of adolescent, family structure, and SES) on
delinquency. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual model that guides this project (see Figure 1).
Specifically, three research aims are proposed: AIM 1. To identify distinctive trajectories of
delinquent behaviors from early adolescence to late adolescence in the U.S. and South Korea.
This will document distinctive patterns of juvenile delinquency in both countries. AIM 2. To
examine the influence of changes in parental warmth on the developmental trajectories of
delinquency among American adolescents and Korean adolescents using LGM from early
adolescence to late adolescence. AIM 3. To examine the influence of several other important
factors (i.e., gender of adolescent, family structure, and SES) on juvenile delinquency and the
association between parental warmth and delinquency.
BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE
Definition and Trajectories of Juvenile Delinquency
Delinquency is broadly defined as a behavior that violates the criminal code and is committed by
an adolescent who has not reached adult age (Corsini, 1984). Morris and Hawkins (1960),
however note that the social definition of delinquency has several different meanings, including
not only crimes, but also non-criminal behaviors like such as fights with siblings and association
with delinquent peers. Delinquency studies conducted in Korea have widely adopted the
definitions and theories used in the U.S. Life-course theories of delinquency emphasized that an
individual’s developmental stages throughout the life course can affect the onset of delinquency
and delinquent career over time (Patterson, Deborah, & Lew, 1991; Sampson & Laub, 1997).
Based on life-course criminology, the importance of studies on delinquency trajectories has been
widely recognized in throughout the field of criminal justice over for the past decade. There has
been a A consensus over whether that an age-crime curve exists cross-culturally, in that
delinquency rates increase in early adolescence (ages 11 to 14), peak in middle adolescence
(ages 15 to 17), and then decreases around late adolescence (ages 18 to 21) (Meeus, Branje, &
Overbeek, 2004; Moffitt, 1993). The universality of peak age crime during adolescence still
serves as has been an important criminal justice research topic. In addition, juvenile delinquency
was is associated with poor academic achievement (Masten et al, 2005), lack of social
competency (Oyserman & Saltz, 1993), and adult criminal behavior (Mulvey, 2011). Thus, it is
important to examine individual differences in the developmental trajectories of delinquent
behavior across cultures.
Cultural Background of Juvenile Delinquency: the U.S. vs. South Korea
In the era of expanding globalization, the U.S. department and research funding institute can be
should extended to and invest in cross-cultural research to better understand the etiology and
prevention of juvenile delinquency. To some degree, Ccultural norms can be used to justify
social practices and that commiting delinquent acts (e.g., encouragement of self-exploration) or
the opposite, to protect against delinquency (e.g., respect of tradition). American culture tends to
be is more individualistic, emphasizing personal independence, autonomy, and self-fulfillment. It
promotes personal freedom, creativity, and self-exploration during adolescence. Thus, American
adolescents may have more chances to engage in risk-taking behaviors and to act against social
constraints and conventions than adolescents in other less individualistic cultures (Le &
Stockdale, 2005). Also, tThey may also assert their strong identity and regard themselves as a
distinct and independent human. In contrast, Korean culture tends to be collectivist, focusing on
interdependence, conformity, and security (Kim & Hong, 2007). Koreans emphasize the
importance of children obeying authority, especially parents and elders, and respecting social
behavioral norms and traditions. Korean parents are also tend to be more involved in
adolescents’ decision making and control adolescents’ behavior stricter strictly. As a result,
Korean adolescents may have less opportunity to engage in delinquent activities, and
subsequently following the appropriate behavioral norms in society.
Cultural Differences in Parenting and Perception of Parental Warmth between the U.S. and
South Korea
American independence and individuality is especially evident in the relationship of between
family members to one another. American parents’ main job is to teach their children how to
become independent. On the other hand However, in the Korean family, the values of the family
as a whole are more important than the needs of the individual. Korean parents think that their
job is to feed, clothe, educate, and house their children. In return, adult children are expected to
care for their aging parents and sacrifice their personal needs for their parents’ well-being (Oak
& Martin, 2000). Parental warmth is defined as the level of parental affection or acceptance
toward to their children (Bean, Barber, & Crane, 2006). Whereas American parents are more
likely to show their warmth and affection to their children verbally and physically, Korean
parents, influenced by Confucianism, are not accustomed to expressing warmth towards their
children (Kim & Cain, 2008). Instead, Korean parents believe that providing a good quality of
education and other necessities of life, including such as foods and clothes is the best a way to
express their warmth to their children. This is related to the collectivistic nature of Korean
culture that emphasizes parents’ perceived responsibility and obligation to provide essential
living items (Kim & Hong, 2007). The implicit way of showing parental warmth in Korea
contrasts to the common recommendation in the U.S. that love should be demonstrated (Gordon,
2000). In addition, Korean parents also tend to demonstrate their warmth by showing their high
level of control and extensive involvement with their children’ daily lives. Korean parents
generally believe in saying, “Sarang-Eei-Mae”,” referred to as which translates to, “the whip of
love” (Chang, Rhee, & Weaver, 2006). Naturally, Korean adolescents tend to perceive parental
control as a sign of parental warmth and affection. This may also be related to Confucianism,
which that focuses on the parents’ role as a strict teacher to their children rather than a warm
parent.
The Association between Parental Warmth and Juvenile Delinquency: A Cross-Cultural
Perspective
Parental warmth promotes adolescent honesty with parents, reporting on daily activities, and
disclosure of thoughts and feelings (Fletcher, Steinberg, & Williams-Wheeler, 2004; Warr,
2007). Similarly, parental warmth encourages responsive interactions and counteracts tensions
and conflicts between parent and adolescent (Benson & Buehler, 2012). In contrast, lower levels
of parental warmth was is associated with adolescent emotional distress (Operario, Tschann,
Flores, & Bridges, 2006), the inability to express positive emotions appropriately (David &
Grusec, 2006), psychological maladjustment (Suchman, Rounsaville, DeCoste, & Luthar, 2007),
and externalizing problems including delinquency (Cui & Conger, 2008; Lee, Onifade, Teasley,
& Noel, 2012; Windle et al, 2010). However, evidence regarding the association between
parental warmth and delinquency is inconclusive. Walker-Barnes and Mason (2004) found that
parental warmth strengthened the association between gang involvement, delinquency, and
substance use for American adolescents. They suggested that adolescents could perceive parental
warmth as approval of gang activities. Although several studies have been conducted to examine
the association between parental warmth and juvenile delinquency, there are few comparative
studies regarding the association between parental warmth and delinquency in the U.S. and
South Korea. Therefore, the differences on in the association between parental warmth and
delinquency will be examined between American adolescents and Korean adolescents. In sum, it
is important to identify distinctive trajectories of delinquency and to examine the association
between delinquency and parental warmth in the U.S. and South Korea. Specifically, we
hypothesize that: H1: Delinquency will increase from early to middle adolescent and then
decline in late adolescence. H2: The rate of change in parental warmth will be negatively
associated with the trajectories of delinquency across time. H3: Adolescents’ gender, family
structure, and SES will be significantly associated with delinquency and parental warmth over
time.
PROGECT DESIGN AND IMPLEMETATION
The purpose of this project is to examine trajectories of delinquency and change in parental
warmth and its association with change in juvenile delinquency. We will use nationally
representative large samples from both countries to investigate the three aims longitudinally and
cross-culturally. The project timeline is shown in Table 1 (see Table 1).
SAMPLE
The United States. The U.S. data will be obtained from the National Longitudinal Study of
Adolescent Health (Add Health). Add Health is a school-based longitudinal study of adolescents
in grades 7-12 in the U.S. from 1944-95. Add Health usesd a stratified, multistage, and cluster
sampling design. Information included is the social and demographic characteristics of
adolescents, family composition and dynamics, delinquent behaviors, and relationships with
parents, etc. Details of the Add Health could be found are in Harris et al. (2008) and at the
website: http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design. At Wave I, 20,745 adolescents in
grades 7-12 in 1994-95 participated in an in-home interview. One year later, 14,738 adolescents
participated at Wave II except from those who graduated from high school. Wave III included
15,197 adolescents when they were at 18-27 years old in 2001. In order to focus on early
adolescence to late adolescence and to match the age range of the more age-limited Korean
sample, participants aged 14 at Wave I, aged 15 at Wave II, and aged 19 at Wave III will be
selected in this study. South Korea. Korean data will be drawn from the Korea Youth Panel
Survey (KYPS), designed by the National Youth Policy Institute (NYPI). The 3,449 adolescents
in grades 8 were participated annually for six years from 2003 to 2008. Participants were
recruited from 12 regions including Seoul, and eleven 11 metropolitan cities by using a stratified,
multi-stage, cluster sampling method. Sampling representativeness has been is maintained by
applying a cross-sectional and longitudinal weighted value method in the case of loss of
sampling subjects overtime. Information includesd the social and demographic characteristics of
respondents, family structure, delinquent behaviors, relationships with parents and peers, etc.
Details of KYPS dataset could be found at the website:
http://archive.nypi.re.kr/sub.asp?Mcode=C020000. For this project, Wave I (age 14), Wave II
(age 15), and Wave IV (age 19) will be used.
MEASURES
To keep it consistent across waves and across countries, only the same items will be used from
both American samples and Korean samples. The United State (Add Health) Delinquency (Wave
I, II, III) will be measured by using the same nine items across waves asking: “Have you tried
cigarette smoking, even just one or two puffs?”,” “During the past 12 months, how often did
you: “deliberately damage property”,” “steal something worth more than $50”,” “go into a house
or building to steal something”,” “steal something worth less than $50”,” “sell marijuana or other
drugs”,” “use or threaten to use a weapon to get something from someone”,” “take part in a fight
where a group of your friends was against another group”,” and “drink alcohol”.” The responses
range 0 = Never, 1 = 1 or 2 times, 2 = 3 or 4 times, 3 = 5 or more times. Parental Warmth (Wave
I, II, III) will be measured by using the same four items across waves. Target adolescents were
asked to respond to the following items: “Most of the time, mother/father is warm and loving
toward you,” and “How close do you feel to mother/father?”. The first item response ranges from
1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree. The second item response ranges from 1 = Not at all
to 5 = Very much. South Korea (KYPS) Delinquency (Wave I, II, VI) will be measured by using
the same twelve items across waves through adolescents’ self-report of their delinquent
behaviors asking: “Have you tried the following delinquent acts in the past one year?”, and, “If
yes, during the past 12 months, how often did you committee: “smoking,”, “drinking”,” “running
away”,” “haveing sex”,” “beating”,” “gang fight”,” “robbing”,” “stealing”,” “teaseing or
bantering other people”,” “threatening”,” “bullying”,” and “commit sexual assault or sexual
harassment”.” All responses range from 1 = Never to 2 = Yes and adolescents reported the
frequency of their delinquent acts. Parental Warmth (Wave I, II, VI) will be assessed by using
the same three items across waves. Target adolescents were asked to respond to the following
items; “My parents always treat me with love and warmth”,” “My parents try to spend much
time with me”,” and “My parents understand me well”.” The responses range from 1 = Very
untrue to 5 = Very true. Several other important variables (i.e., gender of adolescent, family
structure, and SES) will also be included in this project be assessed the same way across
countries at Wave I from each sample.
ANALYTIC STRATEGY
Several methods of statistical analysis, including CFA and LGM, will be used to test three
hypotheses. To deal with missing values, full-information maximum likelihood estimation
(FIML) will be used in AMOS 18.0. FIML provide less biased information than ad hoc
procedures, such as list wise deletion, pairwise deletion, or imputation of means (Acock, 2005;
Allison, 2003). To testing how the models and rates of change fit the data, χ2 (non-significant)
CFI (higher than .90), and RMSEA (less than .05) (Hu & Bentler, 1999) will be used. The
analytic plan for each hypothesis is below.
Trajectories of Delinquency (H1): Univariate growth curve model will be used to examine
individual trajectory of delinquency from early adolescence to late adolescence. The factor
loadings of the initial levels of delinquency will be fixed to one as unchanged intercepts. The
factor loadings of the slopes for the three repeated measures of delinquency will be fixed to at
zero, one, and six because the slope factor has unequal time interval over time (i.e., age 14 at WI,
age 15 at WII, and age 19 at WIII) (see Figure 2).
Prediction of Delinquency Trajectories by Changes in Parental Warmth (H2): Interlocked growth
curve model will be used to test the hypothesized association between the trajectories of
delinquency and parental warmth across the three time points. While the intercept and slope
factors reflect the average starting values and the average rate of change over time, the variances
in the intercept and slope factors indicate individual differences at baseline and rates of change
respectively. The path from parental warmth intercept to delinquency slope indicates the
interaction between initial parental warmth and three time points on change in delinquency. The
path from parental warmth slope to delinquency slope indicates the effect of change in parental
warmth on change in delinquency (see Figure 3).
Influences of Other Variables (i.e., adolescents’ gender, family structure, and SES) on
Delinquency (H3): The model will be extended to include time-invariant covariates (i.e., gender,
family structure, and SES). Adolescent gender will be coded as 0 = Male and 1 = Female. Family
structure will be coded as a dummy variable with 0 = two-biological parents and 1 = other.
Parents’ education will be assessed by the highest level of education completed between mother
and father. Country will also be added and coded as 1 = U.S. and 2 = Korea (see Figure 4).
POTENTIAL IMPACT PRACTICAL IMPACT
NIJ reportsed that early prevention and intervention for of delinquency is one of the most critical
criminal justice issues. Further, strong evidence supports that early prevention is the most
effective way of preventing delinquency (Loeber, Farrington, & Petechuk, 2003). Although a
reactive policy remains dominant in dealing with juvenile delinquency, a proactive approach has
emerged since in the 1990s and adopted the current public health model. As applied to juvenile
delinquency, the public health model emphasizes the prevention of delinquency before it occurs
by reducing the risk of delinquency and increasing resiliency against delinquency (Dahlberg &
Krug, 2002). The public health approach follows four-steps,: which are 1) define the problem
using the scientific method, 2) identify risk and protective factors, 3) design, develop and
evaluate preventions, and 4) implement and disseminate models (Hamburg, 1998). As the first
step of this approach, identifying distinctive trajectories of delinquency from early to late
adolescence will provide valuable guidance to define the problem of juvenile delinquency. As
the second step, the extended LGM will help to identify protective factors and where prevention
efforts need to be focused. Specifically, adolescents raised by parents who are affectionate and
supportive toward their children are less likely to become delinquents or serious offenders. These
protective factors can provide a buffer against delinquency because it decreases the likelihood of
an adolescent becoming a victim or perpetrator from delinquency. The findings from this project
as an evidence-based approach can be used to develop criminal justice policy and implement
public prevention programs such as the multi-systemic program, which is family-focused and
community-based treatment for serious or chronic juvenile offenders (Borduin et al., 1995).
METHODOLOGICAL IMPACT
One major methodological issue in previous delinquency studies is the use of non-representative
and cross-sectional data. In this project, we will use a nationally representative and longitudinal
data from the U.S. and South Korea. Regarding statistical analysis, we will use LGM to test the
developmental trajectories of delinquency and the association between juvenile delinquency and
parental warmth. LGM is the best statistic technique for this project, as it allows us to examine
the individual differences through developmental trajectories of delinquency and how the change
of parental warmth affects the changes of delinquency over a certain time- period (Duncan,
Duncan, & Strycker, 2013). As a relatively new technique, the extension of the LGM approach
will be strengthened by including time-invariant and time-variant variables within the basic
LGM framework. This new approach enables us to produce robust findings, which will improve
criminal justice policiesy and prevention programs against juvenile delinquency.
THEORETICAL IMPACT
Most theories of delinquency have focused on cross-sectional perspectives since they attempt to
explain fairly specific problem behaviors, committing committed during a certain time period. It
is only in recent years that developmental theories have emphasized how individuals are affected
by various social constructs through the life course of life and how it is related to a delinquent
career over time. We will add our findings of developmental trajectories of delinquency and the
association between delinquency and parental warmth from early to late adolescence to improve
traditional theories of delinquency.
CAPABILITIES AND COMPETENCIES
I am a doctoral candidate in the Department of Family and Child Studies, at the Florida State
University (FSU). I have successfully passed both the written and oral doctoral preliminary
examinations in September, 2013. I also have also completed 19 credit hours of required and
advanced statistics classes (i.e., General lLinear mModel aApplication, Advanced tTopics in
aAnalysis of vVariance aApplication, Measurement tTheory, Multivariate aAnalysis
aApplication, Causal mModeling, and Hierarchical Linear Modeling) since I started a my
doctoral degree in August, 2011. As a result, I received the Certificate of Measurement and
Statistics from Department of Educational Psychology and Learning systems at FSU in 2013. I
was exposed to additional coursework such as Dyadic analysis and the Qualitative Mmethod.
Through Because of this coursework, I can apply various analyses to research design and is am
skilled in the use of diverse statistical programs, including SPSS, M-plus, AMOS, and HLM. I
have learned how to deal with a large panel data using SPSS syntax, working as a research
assistant for Dr. Ming Cui in 2011. My manuscript regarding the association between parental
warmth and delinquency with a cross-cultural perspective in the U.S. and South Korea is under
reviewing in the Journal of Comparative Family Studies. I presented a poster and a paper
regarding parental behavior and juvenile delinquency at the annual conference of the National
Council on Family Relations (NCFR) in 2012 and 2013. I first- have also authored a book
chapter on Korean immigrant families to be published in the Social History of the American
Family. Through the practical research experiences in the National Youth Policy Institute in
South Korea, I have learned the ability how to manage and analyze data using SPSS and have
even participated in writing annual government reports about youth rights and child welfare
policy. During my mMaster’s degree, I also participated in the study of cultural influences on
infant development funded by the Korea Research Foundation and completed my mMaster
thesis, along with a and one publication in the Korean Journal of Child Studies. With my training
in juvenile delinquency and cross-cultural studies, I am capable of carrying out the proposed
project. Dr. Ming Cui is an Associate Professor in the Department of Family and Child Sciences,
at FSU. Her research focus includes adolescent development, parenting, and research methods.
Dr. Cui was the PI on several federally and privately funded projects examining adolescent
health and well-being. Dr. Cui has published over thirty articles and book chapters. Dr. Cui has
served as major professor or and mentor for many graduate students, which earned her a
University Outstanding Graduate Mentor Award in 2014. With her qualification for supervision,
I am confident that I can carry out the this project. Further, the project will provide me the
opportunity to gain in-depth experience in areas of juvenile delinquency. My ultimate research
goal is to prevent juvenile delinquency and promote adolescents’ well-being.