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Trends in the Global Rise of the Prevalence of Obesity from the 1980’s- Present between
Developed and Developing Countries
Marylud Silva, University of Texas at Dallas
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Abstract
Purpose: Understanding and analyzing the trends associated with the economic effects due to
the global rise in the prevalence of Obesity since the 1980’s between developed and developing
countries.
Design/methodology/approach:The data was collected from over fifteen different peerreviewed academic articles and the World Bank.
Findings: The findings showed that between rates of obesity, between 1980-present seem to be
increasing in both developed and developing countries. The greatest increase in the rate of
overweight and obesity was between 1992 and 2002, but has slowed in the last decade, more so
in developing countries. There were limitations of current accurate global obesity rates, most of
the data came from self reported height and weight that can sometime be over reported by males
and underreported by females. In the past 33 years no country has successfully reduce obesity.
Originality/Value/Contribution: This current study is original in that it discusses the
correlation between the tactics used by the Tobacco industry in the United States, to avoid profit
loss, exclusively from 1954 to present, and the strategies such as Leanwashing, used by the big
businesses in the Food industry, in order to promote inactivity as the primary determinant of
obesity, primarily in the western world, but not limited to the United States Europe or Asia.
Terms: obesity, medical costs, overweight, food industry, leanwashing, lobbying, diet theorist,
tobacco industry, BMI, nutrition
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Introduction
According to the World Health Organization, WHO, since the 1980’s global prevalence
obesity had nearly doubled. In 2008, when examining the adult population of 20 years and older,
WHO found that more than 1.4 billion adults (accounts for 35% of adults) were overweight; and
of these over 200 million men and nearly 300 million women(accounts for 11% of adults) were
obese. Although obesity is preventable, overweight and obesity are leading risks for global
deaths, which accounts for the deaths of 3.4 million adults each year. WHO found 65% of the
world’s population lives in allhigh-income and most mid- and low-income countries where
obesity kills more people than underweight.
Generally overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation
that may impair health. The body mass index (BMI) is used worldwide to classify overweight
and obesity in adults. It is measured by a person's weight in kilograms divided by the square of
his height in meters (kg/m2). Generally a BMI greater than or equal to 25 is classified as
overweight and a BMI greater than or equal to 30 is classified as obesity.
Although there are countless factors in research that cause obesity and overweight the
three fundamental factors include poor nutrition, lack of physical activity (a combination of these
two leads to an energy imbalance between calories consumed and calories expended) and genetic
predisposition. Technological and economical advances have led to a global an increased intake
of energy-dense foods that are high in fat; and an increase in physical inactivity due to the
increasingly sedentary nature of many forms of work, changing modes of transportation, and
increasing urbanization. WHO finds that changes in dietary and physical activity behavior and
patterns are often the result of environmental and societal changes associated with development
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and lack of supportive policies in sectors such as health, agriculture, transport, urban planning,
environment, food processing, distribution, marketing and education.In research to date at least
four major categories ofeconomic impacts have been linked with the obesity epidemic including:
direct medical costs, productivity costs, transportation costs, and human capital costs.
Supersized America
Among the high-income, mid- and low-income countries covered in this paper will draw
much focus on the obesity crisis in the United States. As of 2010, WHO’s Global InfoBase,
reports the prevalence of obesity amongst American males as 80.5% listing the United States as
the 7th highest out of 192 countries; and American women are listed as having a prevalence of
obesity of 76.7% listing the United States as the 14th highest out of the 192 countries. While
factors such as, preferences, lifestyle, culture, ethnicity and income level are closely related to
the choice of certain products and eating habits many developing countries are looking to the
western world and tend to adopt similar eating habits as their own food culture changes. (Insert
research about diets). Economic and technological developments, since World War II, introduced
an industrialized American diet, and have led to greater availability and variety of food along
with the availability of information and access to packaged food, which has resulted into greater
obesity rates. The data shown in the maps below were collected through CDC’s Behavioral Risk
Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). Each year, state health departments use standard
procedures to collect data through a series of telephone interviews with U.S. adults and include
self-reported height and weight data ((Mokdad, 1999).In 2011, BRFSS had methodological
changes to estimate the prevalence of self-reported obesity so the estimates below should not be
compared to the most recent prevalence estimates calculated after 2013.
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The data above shows how obesity has gradually increased year after year in the United
States, as explained by the CDC among the states participating in the BRFSS, by 1990, ten
stateshad a prevalence of obesity less than 10% and no state had prevalence equal to or greater
than 15%. By 2000, no state had a prevalence of obesity less than 10%, while twenty three states
had prevalence between 20–24%, and no state had prevalence equal to or greater than 25%.
Finally in 2010, no state had a prevalence of obesity less than 20%. Thirty-six states had a
prevalence equal to or greater than 25%; and twelve of these had a prevalence equal to or greater
than 30%(Mokdad, 1999). The most recent data obtained from BRFSS, shows that by 2013 no
state had a prevalence of obesity less than 20%; seven states and the District of Columbia has a
prevalence of obesity between 20% and <25%; twenty three states had a prevalence of obesity
between 25% and <30%; eighteen states had a prevalence of obesity between 30% and <35%;
two states hadprevalence of obesitygreater or equal to 35%.
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Non-discriminatory Disease
The rates of obesity have been increasing in both developing and developed countries; no
country has successfully reduced obesity in 33 years, according to data from an analysis
including 188 countries. In 2010, it was estimated 3.4 million deaths and 4% of years of life lost
were as a result of overweight and obesity; causing concern about the health risks associatedwith
rising obesity led member states of WHO to introduce a voluntary target to stop the rise in
obesity by 2025(Ng, 2014) and monitor change in the prevalence of obesity among the world.
Almost 30% (2.1 billion people) of the global populations are now classified as being overweight
or obese; between 1992 and 2002 the rate of increase of obesity was the greatest, but in the past
decade has slowed down, more so in developing nations(Ng, 2014). More than 50% of obese
individuals (671 million) in the world live in ten countries: US, China, India, Russia, Brazil,
Mexico, Egypt, Germany, Pakistan, and Indonesia (listed in order of number of obese
individuals).
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The analysis estimated prevalence of obesity in adults exceeded 50% among developing
countries in for men Tonga and women in Kuwait, Kiribati, the Federated States of Micronesia,
Libya, Qatar, Tonga, and Samoa. In developed countries, more men than women were
overweight and obese, however, in developing countries, overweight and obesity was more
prevalent in women than in men, the highest prevalence of obesity in women, 42.0%, was
recorded insub-Saharan Africa in 2013. Central America and Latin Americaconsisted of 14
countries with prevalence in women of greater than 20%. The lowest rates of obesity in were
found in, China and India, which also accounted for 15% of obese individuals worldwide, in
2013. In China, 3.8% of men and5.0% of women were obese, comparedwith 3.7% of men and
4.2% ofwomen in India.In developed countries, the United States reported in 2013 with a high
prevalence of obesity; roughly a third of men (31.6%) and women (33.9%) were obese; and
accounted for 13% of obese people worldwide in 2013(Ng, 2014).
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There was a distinct noted geographic pattern in high rates of child and adolescent
obesity in many countries in the Middle East and north Africa, in particular girls, and in several
Pacific Island and Caribbean nations among both sexes. Looking at countries individually, the
prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents ranged from as high as more than 30% for girls
in Kiribati and the Federated States of Micronesia to less than 2% in Bangladesh, Brunei,
Burundi, Cambodia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Laos, Nepal, North Korea, Tanzania, and Togo (Ng,
2014). The rates of obesity amongst boys, within Western Europe, ranged from 13.9% in Israel
to 4.1% in the Netherlands. The highest prevalence of child and adolescent obesity was found
among Latin America, for boys it varied from11.9% in Chile and 10.5% Mexico, and for girls it
varied in 18.1% in Uruguay and 12.4% in Costa Rica.
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Economic Analysis
Among low- and middle-income countries, cardiovascular diseases are among the leading
causes of death. Currently the CDC finds 9.3% of the US population suffers from diabetes and
increase of 1.5% from 2007 (Nandi, 2014). The growing problem of obesity can be reviewed in
different phases. From the 1970s to present, Phase 1 of obesity began when the average weight is
steadily increasing among children from all socioeconomic levels, racial and ethnic groups, and
regions of the country(McDowell, 1997).Phase 2 of obesity is began by the emergenceof serious
weight-related problems (Ludwig, 2007), such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Gaziano,
2010). Phase 3 of obesity, when the medical complications of obesity lead to life-threatening
disease; the last phase will take a few more years to acknowledge due to
misdiagnoses(Ruhm,2007).
Advances in agricultural technology have led to declines in the relative price of food and
is one primary explanation for the observed growth of body weight over the past quarterand
higher exercise (or calorie expenditure) prices (Drichoutis, 2012). Analyses of price increases
during the period of 1985-2000 for food in different categories shows that cost of sweets, fats,
and caloric beverages fell substantially in relation to fresh vegetables and fruits; while the retail
price of fresh fruit and vegetables increased 120 percent and the price of fats and oils increased
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by 38 percent (Hojjat, 2015). Developments in agriculture and food technology have made added
sugars and vegetable oils readily accessible at remarkable low costs.
Using Engel’s Law, when the relative price of a good or service rises, the quantity
demanded falls (Budd, 2004). Although Americans have the lowest cost food supply in the
world, Table 2, shows that the typical American (33% obesity rate) spends about 7% of their
income for Food; compares to the average Indonesian (4.8% obesity rate) who devotes about
43% of their spending on food (Hojjat, 2015). Generally, healthier diets cost more; the average
American diet consists of almost 40 percent daily energy from added sugars and added fats
which are relatively inexpensive (Frazoa, Allshouse, 2003).In the United States, the gains in life
expectancy since 1970 have also been much more modest than in most other OECD countries.
While life expectancy in the United States used to be one year above the OECD average in 1970,
it is now more than one year below the average (OECD, 2014). Diet quality is influenced by
socioeconomic position and may well be limited by financial access to nutrient-dense foods.
Obesity is the second leading preventable cause of death in the United States and is associated
with multiple chronic conditions, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart disease,
and stroke, Type 2 diabetes. The direct medical costs related to obesity are secondary to
preventive, diagnostic and treatment services; while indirect can be measured with a higher
disability insurance premium, and labor market productivity (Hojjat, 2015). In 2007, 7.8% of the
U.S. population suffered from diabetes and had average total medical expenditures of about
$10,478 per year; it is estimated diabetes was responsible for approximately $2,044. Compared
to the general population, average medical expenditures for all adults 35 and older was
approximately half the amount at, $5,185 (Meyerhoefer, 2007). Due to the multiple chronic
conditions that result from overweight and obesity, employers have acknowledged the economic
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consequences on resulting as the loss of productivity and high medical expenses; which, in 2013,
were estimated to be $170 billion in the United States.
“Thank You for Not Smoking” –The Food Industry
The food industry, unlike the tobacco industry is very diverse and fragmented; this paper
will focus on three businesses, “packaged food (companies such as Kraft, General Foods,
General Mills, Kellogg’s, Unilever, Nestle, Danone), beverages (companies such as Coca-Cola,
PepsiCo), and fast food (companies such as McDonald’s, Burger King, Yum! Brands)” (Karnani,
2014). As the prevalence of obesity has been on the rise, the food industries’ actions to respond
the concerns about their products causing harm are significantly similar to the tobacco industry
in 1957, which marked the first time the U.S. Public Health Service took a position on smoking
and health, after the first U.S. Surgeon General Leroy E. Burney found clear scientific evidence
establishing a relationship between smoking and lung cancer.
For decades the tobacco companies had been exempt from the standards of responsibility
and accountability that apply to all other American corporations.In 1958, a survey found that
only 44 percent of Americans believed smoking caused cancer, while 78 percent believed so by
1968. In 1994, six tobacco company CEOs declare, under oath, that nicotine is not addictive.One
executive insisted that cigarettes were no more addictive than coffee, tea or Twinkies.
Representative Henry Waxman, a Democrat from California, replied, "The difference between
cigarettes and Twinkies is death."This hearing would bring about government intervention with
policy and systems changes, such as higher tobacco excise taxes, smoke-free indoor air laws, and
access to cessation treatments, to significantly reduce death and disease from tobacco.
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As the data shows in 1963 yearly per capita consumption of cigarettes in the U.S. reaches
its peak, at 4,336 cigarettes per person per year, cigarette consumption would begin a true
downward trend in 1964. “Public health experts have drawn parallels between how the tobacco
industry responded to health concerns due to smoking, and how the food industry is responding
to concerns about obesity (Holford, 2014).”
Leanwashing
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While it is reported by numerous amounts of research that a poor diet is a much greater
determinant of obesity than lack of exercise, several food and beverage companies consistently
overemphasize the lack of obesity. “The term leanwashing is used to describe the public relations
and marketing activities of a firm that deceptively promote the perception that the firm is helping
to solve the obesity problem and that deflect attention from the fact that it is directly contributing
to the obesity crisis”(Karnani, 2014).This paper highlights an indirect effect of food marketing
by the food industries on obesity; through the substantial promotional and PR messages that are
released in as a response to public concern in their involvement in the rise of obesity.
Leanwashing strategy can be identified in public statements, lobbying, philanthropy and
sponsorship of sports teams and events.
From 1980-2000 the number of people (self-reported) who perform regular exercise
increased from 47% to 57% and from 1993 to 2009 the number of gym memberships doubled
from 23M to 45M. Regardless of the evidence showing the primary determinants of obesity is
nutrition, rather than inactivity, the public has held their lay theories, about the cause of obesity,
over scientific evidence. The American Beverage Association (ABA) has spent an average
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around $1 million annually from 2003-20013 between, 2009-2012; the food industries spent
$175 million on lobbying activities. When taxes on sugar were being proposed around 2009 and
2010 the ABA reported and expense of $18.9 million and $9.9 million on lobbying activities.
Public statements by companies tend to argue that lack of exercise or an increase of a sedentary
lifestyle is the primary cause of obesity, consumer have been listening because since the 1980’s
surveys suggest that levels of physical activity may be improving at the same time that
overweight and obesity rates are increasing (US Burden of Disease Collaborators, 2013).Table 4
below compares the television and/or radio use among males and females at different education
levels, it is provided in the paper to show the potential reach of the lay theories being reinforced
through the food industry.
Table 3 represents empirical results from six separate studies to determine the relative
importance of over nutrition versus lack of exercise as the causes of obesity in lay theories;
results suggest that only about half the population is diet theorists, or people who believed over
nutrition was a primary cause of obesity more so then inactivity. There was a significant
correlation noted with the participants actual BMI and the results in Table 3. “Diet theorists were
the least overweight, while exercise theorist we the most overweight, and belief that genes were
the primary cause had no relationship observed with any of the studies” (Karnani, 2014).
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Source, table 4: (Michaud, 2007)
Technological advances are not just increased sedentary lifestyles but avoid visiting
experts for accurate information regarding all problems, including their health; national data
suggest that 64% of Americans are trying to lose weight and that 48% are following a weight
loss strategy; and they are turning to the Internet forinformation about health and weight loss.
Currently, 82% ofAmericans use the Internet, according to national data, 42.83% of Internetusers
access the Web for weight lossand physical activity information (Modave, 2014). The
government, universities, and the medical communities has used the internet as a platform to
provide readily available information to the public, however the table below shows the results of
the accuracy of weight loss information on the internet, in 2012 (Modave, 2014). Although
medical, universities and government sites ranked highest, along with blogs, they did not top the
search engine results and less likely to be read before other inaccurate websites. An assumption
can be made that a growing number of individuals are taking an initiative to providing health
information to help raise awareness of obesity by providing accurate tips, and aside from the
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high number of unsubstantiated claims they more like to be read than a medical, universities or
government site.
Concluding Comments
The data collected reflects that although the increase of the prevalence of obesity slowed
down in the past decade no country has successfully reduced obesity in the past three decades;
with rates of obesity growing so rapidly among children there is an alarming need for
government intervention to educate and providing the public with readily available information
on the primary determinant of obesity to reduce and prevent future obesity rates and obesity
related diseases and deaths. Although government intervention is needed to pass policy changed
among the food industries actions, it will be a costly, time consuming battle on both sides while
the obesity rate continues to climb.
This papers main recommendation as a catalyst for change comes from the Healthy Cities
and Communities Movement, which focuses on change among spreading awareness in cities,
because “often they are the incubators of social and political change; they take global thinking
and act locally” (Bezold, 2014). They Healthy Cities and Communities Movement believe cities
are generators of economic opportunity and sources of innovation and creativity, (from anti-
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tobacco laws to sustainability, from taking action on fast foods to participatory budgeting) and
their concentration and population density enable them to be generally more environmentally
sustainable on a per capita basis and to provide services efficiently; cities have been more
effective to lead the way, more so than any provincial/state or national government.
Technological advances have aided the rise of prevalence of obesity; but can also be used to
form a strong sustainable movement to empower cities to help fight obesity everywhere and
make information and resources readily available among communities on proper nutrition. Cities
and communities must push through local laws to have their children learn in school systems
how to maintain healthy lives and how determine a healthy diet for a lifetime, the solution to
decreasing the obesity rate in the United States lies in the children education; which can only be
changed by educating adults.
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Entrepreneurship, 7 (2), 45-55.
Carraher, S. &Carraher, C. (1994). ISO 9000 - theories of management. Polymer News, 19, 373-376.
Carraher, S. &Carraher, C. (1995). Total quality management applied to industry - ISO 9000. Journal
of Polymer Materials, 12, 1-9.
Carraher, S. &Carraher, C. (1996). ISO environmental management standards: ISO 14,000. Polymer
News, 21, 167-169.
Carraher, S. &Carraher, C. (1996). ISO 9000. Polymer News, 21, 21-24.
Carraher, S. &Carraher, S.C. (2005). Felt fair pay of small to medium, sized enterprise (SME) owners in
Finland and Latvia: An examination of Jaques’ equity construct. Journal of Small Business
Strategy, 16 (1), 1-8.
Carraher, S. &Carraher, S.C. (2006). Human resource issues among SME’s in Eastern Europe: A 30
month study in Belarus, Poland, and Ukraine. International Journal of Entrepreneurship, 10,
97-108.
Carraher, S., Carraher, S.C., &Mintu-Wimsatt, A. (2005). Customer service management in Western
and Central Europe: A concurrent validation strategy in entrepreneurial financial information
services organizations. Journal of Business Strategies, 22 (1), 41-54.
Carraher, S., Carraher, S.C., & Whitely, W. (2003). Global entrepreneurship, income, and work norms:
A Seven country study. Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal,9 (1), 31-42.
Carraher, S. &Chait, H. (1999). Level of work and felt fair pay: An examination of two of Jaques'
constructs of felt fair pay. Psychological Reports, 84 (2), 654-656.
Carraher, S.M. &Courington, J. (2008). Designing an applied graduate program in Organizational
Leadership: Research or no research? International Journal of Family Business George Puia,
5 (1), 17-30.
Carraher, S.M., Courington, J., & Burgess, S. (2008). The design of the SBI model graduate program in
entrepreneurship that encourages entrepreneurship, ethics, and leadership in health care
July 1-2, 2015
Cambridge, UK
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2015 Cambridge Business & Economics Conference
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management and public service. International Journal of Family Business, 5 (1), 3-6
Shawn M. Carraher , Madeline M. Crocitto , Sherry Sullivan , (2014) "A kaleidoscope career perspective
on faculty sabbaticals", Career Development International, Vol. 19 Iss: 3, pp.295 – 313.
Carraher, S., Franklin, G., Parnell, J., & Sullivan, S. (2006). Entrepreneurial service performance and
technology management: A study of China and Japan. Journal of Technology Management in
China, 1 (1), 107-117.
Carraher, S. , Gibson, J., & Buckley, M. (2006). Compensation satisfaction in the Baltics and the USA.
Baltic Journal of Management, 1 (1), 7-23.
Carraher, S., Hart, D., &Carraher, C. (2003).
employees. Personnel Review, 32 (6), 683-693.
Attitudes towards benefits among entrepreneurial
Carraher, S. & Huang, L. (2003). Entrepreneurship: A Global View. Business English (pgs 243-268) edited
by Lei, Yalin& Parnell, John, Beijing, China: Higher Education Press.
Carraher, S. & Huang, L. (2003). Human Resource Management. Business English (Unit 5, 75-96) edited by
Lei, Yalin& Parnell, John, Beijing, China: Higher Education Press.
Carraher, S.M., Huang, L., & Buckley, M.R. (2010). Human Resource Management. In Business English
2nd Edition by Lei, Yalin& Parnell, John, Beijing, China: Higher Education Press [pages 60 to 80].
Carraher, S.M., Huang, L., & Buckley, M.R. (2010). Entrepreneurship: A Global View. In Business English
2nd Edition by Lei, Yalin& Parnell, John, Beijing, China: Higher Education Press [pages 194-220].
Carraher, S., Mendoza, J., Buckley, M., Schoenfeldt, L., Carraher, C. (1998). Validation of an
instrument to measure service orientation. Journal of Quality Management, 3, 211-224.
Carraher, S. & Michael, K. (1999). An examination of the dimensionality of the Vengeance Scale in an
entrepreneurial multinational organization. Psychological Reports,85 (2), 687-688. .
Carraher, S., Mulvey, P., Scarpello, V., & Ash, R. (2004). Pay satisfaction, cognitive complexity, and
global solutions: Is a single structure appropriate for everyone? Journal of Applied
Management & Entrepreneurship, 9 (2), 18-33 .
Carraher, S.M. &Paridon, T. (2008/2009). Entrepreneurship journal rankings across the discipline.
Journal of Small Business Strategy, 19 (2), 89-98.
Carraher, S.M., Paridon, T., Courington, J., & Burgess, S. (2008). Strategically teaching students to
publish using health care, general population, and entrepreneurial samples. International
Journal of Family Business, 5 (1), 41-42.
Carraher, S. & Parnell, J. (2008). Customer service during peak (in season) and non-peak (off season)
times: A multi-country (Austria, Switzerland, United Kingdom and United States) examination
of entrepreneurial tourist focused core personnel. International Journal of Entrepreneurship,
12, 39-56.
Carraher, S., Parnell, J., Carraher, S.C., Carraher, C., & Sullivan, S. (2006). Customer service,
July 1-2, 2015
Cambridge, UK
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2015 Cambridge Business & Economics Conference
ISBN : 9780974211428
entrepreneurial orientation, and performance: A study in health care organizations in Hong
Kong, Italy, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the USA. Journal of Applied
Management & Entrepreneurship, 11 (4), 33-48.
Carraher, S.M., Parnell, J., &Spillan, J. (2009). Customer service-orientation of small retail business
owners in Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Baltic Journal
of Management,4 (3), 251-268.
Carraher, S., Scott, C., &Carraher, S.C. (2004). A comparison of polychronicity levels among small
business owners and non business owners in the U.S., China, Ukraine, Poland, Hungary,
Bulgaria, and Mexico. International Journal of Family Business, 1 (1), 97-101.
Carraher, S. & Sullivan, S. (2003). Employees’ contributions to quality: An examination of the Service
Orientation Index within entrepreneurial organizations. Global Business & Finance Review, 8
(1) 103-110.
Carraher, S., Sullivan. S., &Carraher, C. (2004). Validation of a measure of international stress: Findings
from multinational health service organization professionals. Journal of Applied Management
& Entrepreneurship9 (3) 3-21.
Carraher, S., Sullivan, S. &Carraher, S.C. (2005). An examination of the stress experience by
entrepreneurial expatriate health care professionals working in Benin, Bolivia, Burkina Faso,
Ethiopia, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, Paraguay, South Africa, and Zambia. International Journal of
Entrepreneurship, 9 , 45-66.
Carraher, S.M., Sullivan, S.E., &Crocitto, M. (2008). Mentoring across global boundaries: An
empirical examination of home- and host-country mentors on expatriate career outcomes.
Journal of International Business Studies, 39 (8), 1310-1326.
Carraher, S.M. & Van Auken, H. (2013),The use of financial statements for decision making by small
firms. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 26, (3), 323-336.
Carraher, S.M. & Welsh, D. H. (2009; 2015). Global Entrepreneurship. Kendall Hunt Publishing [2nd
Edition [2015].
Carraher SM, Welsh, Dianne H.B., and Svilokos, A. (2015) ‘Validation of a measure of social
entrepreneurship’ European Journal of International Management.
Carraher, S. & Whitely, W. (1998). Motivations for work and their influence on pay across six countries.
Global Business and Finance Review, 3, 49-56.
Carraher, S.M., Yuyuenyongwatana, R., Sadler, T., & Baird, T. (2009). Polychronicity, leadership, and
language influences among European nurses: Social differences in accounting and finances,
International Journal of Family Business, 6 (1), 35-43.
Chait, H., Carraher, S., & Buckley, M. (2000). Measuring service orientation with biodata. Journal of
Managerial Issues, 12, 109-120.
Chan, S. &Carraher, S. (2006). Chanian chocolate: Ethical leadership in new business start-ups.
International Journal of Family Business, 3 (1), 81-97.
Crocitto, M., Sullivan, S., &Carraher, S. (2005). Global mentoring as a means of career development
and knowledge creation: A learning based framework and agenda for future research. Career
July 1-2, 2015
Cambridge, UK
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2015 Cambridge Business & Economics Conference
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Development International10 (6/7), 522-535.
Daniels, K., Lamond, D.A., and Standen, P. (2000) "Managing Telework: an introduction to the issues" in
Daniels, K., Lamond, D.A., and Standen, P. (eds) (2000) Managing Telework. London: Thompson
Learning, 1-8.
Daniels, K., Lamond, D.A., and Standen, P. (2000) "Prospects and Perspectives" in Daniels, K., Lamond,
D.A., and Standen, P. (eds) (2000) Managing Telework. London: Thompson Learning, 176-178.
Daniels, K., Lamond, D.A., and Standen, P. (eds) (2000) Managing Telework. London: Thompson
Learning
Daniels, K., Lamond, D.A., and Standen, P. (2001) Teleworking: Frameworks for Organisational
Research. Journal of Management Studies, 38(8), 1151-1185.
Davis, T., Schwarz, A. &Carraher, S. (1998). Validation study of the motivation for occupational choice
scale. Psychological Reports, 82 (2) 491-494.
Deng, F.J., Huang, L.Y., Carraher, S.M., &Duan, J. (2009). International expansion of family firms: An
integrative framework using Taiwanese manufacturers. Academy of Entrepreneurship
Journal, 15 (1), 25-42.
Drichoutis, A., Nayga, R., & Lazaridis, P. (2012). Food away from home expenditures and
obesity among older Europeans: are there gender differences?. Empirical Economics,
42(3), 1051-1078. doi:10.1007/s00181-011-0453-4
Frazao, E., & Allshouse, J. (2003). Strategies for Intervention: Commentary and Debate. Journal
of Nutrition, 133(3). Retrieved December 7, 2014, from
http://jn.nutrition.org/content/133/3/844S.short
Gaziano J. Fifth Phase of the Epidemiologic Transition: The Age of Obesity and Inactivity.
JAMA. 2010;303(3):275-276. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.2025.
Hojjat, T. A. (2015). THE ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF OBESITY. Review Of Business &
Finance Studies, 6(1), 81-98.
Holford TR, Meza R, Warner KE, et al. Tobacco Control and the Reduction in Smoking-Related
Premature Deaths in the United States, 1964-2012. JAMA. 2014;311(2):164-171.
doi:10.1001/jama.2013.285112.
July 1-2, 2015
Cambridge, UK
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2015 Cambridge Business & Economics Conference
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Karnani, A., McFerran, B., & Mukhopadhyay, A. (2014). Leanwashing: A HIDDEN FACTOR
IN THE OBESITY CRISIS. California Management Review, 56(4), 5-30.
doi:10.1525/cmr.2014.56.4.5
Ludwig, D. S. (2007). Childhood Obesity — The Shape Of Things To Come. New England
Journal of Medicine, 357(23), 2325-2327. Retrieved December 7, 2014, from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp0706538
Martin, L., Robinson, A., & Moore, B. (2000). Socioeconomic Issues Affecting the Treatment of
Obesity in the New Millennium. Pharmacoeconomics, 18(4), 335-353.
McDowell, D. R., Allen-Smith, J. E., & McLean-Meyinsse, P. E. (1997). Food expenditures and
socioeconomic characteristics: Focus on income class. American Journal Of Agricultural
Economics, 79(5), 1444.
Meyerhoefer, C. D., & Leibtag, E. S. (2010). A Spoonful of Sugar Helps the Medicine Go
Down: the Relationship Between Food Prices and Medical Expenditures on Diabetes.
American Journal Of Agricultural Economics, 92(5), 1271-1282.
doi:10.1093/ajae/aaq064
Michaud, P., Van Soest, A. O., & Andreyeva, T. (2007). Cross-Country Variation in Obesity
Patterns among Older Americans and Europeans. Forum For Health Economics &
Policy, 10(2), 1-30.
Modave, F., Shokar, N. K., Peñaranda, E., & Nguyen, N. (2014). Analysis of the Accuracy of
Weight Loss Information Search Engine Results on the Internet. American Journal Of
Public Health, 104(10), 1971-1978. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2014.302070
July 1-2, 2015
Cambridge, UK
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2015 Cambridge Business & Economics Conference
ISBN : 9780974211428
Mokdad AH, Serdula MK, Dietz WH, Bowman BA, Marks JS, Koplan JP. The Spread of the
Obesity Epidemic in the United States, 1991-1998. JAMA. 1999;282(16):1519-1522.
doi:10.1001/jama.282.16.1519.
Must A, Spadano J, Coakley EH, Field AE, Colditz G, Dietz WH. The Disease Burden
Associated With Overweight and Obesity. JAMA. 1999;282(16):1523-1529.
doi:10.1001/jama.282.16.1523.
Nandi, A., Sweet, E., Ichiro, K., Heymann, J., & Galea, S. (2014). Associations Between
Macrolevel Economic Factors and Weight Distributions in Low- and Middle-Income
Countries: A Multilevel Analysis of 200 000 Adults in 40 Countries. American Journal
Of Public Health, 104(2), e162-e171. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301392
Ng, M., Fleming, T., Robinson, M., Thomson, B., Graetz, N., Margono, C., . . . Gakidou, E.
(2014). Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children
and adults during 1980-2013: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease
study 2013. The Lancet, 384(9945), 766-781. Retrieved from www.scopus.com
Obesity and overweight Fact sheet N°311. (2014, August 1). Retrieved December 8, 2014, from
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/
OECD (2014), Society at a Glance 2014: OECD Social Indicators, OECD Publishing.
DOI: 10.1787/soc_glance-2014-en
Paridon, T. &Carraher, S.M. (2009). Entrepreneurial marketing: Customer shopping value and
patronage behavior. Journal of Applied Management & Entrepreneurship, 14 (2), 3-28.
Paridon, T., Carraher, S., &Carraher, S.C. (2006). The income effect in personal shopping value,
consumer self-confidence, and information sharing (word of mouth communication) research. Academy
of Marketing Studies, 10 (2), 107-124.
Paridon, T., Taylor, S., Cook, R., &Carraher, S. M. (2008). SBI mentoring: Training SBI directors to be
directors. International Journal of Family Business, 5 (1), 35-36.
July 1-2, 2015
Cambridge, UK
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2015 Cambridge Business & Economics Conference
ISBN : 9780974211428
Parnell, J. &Carraher, S. (2001). The role of effective resource utilization in strategy’s impact on
performance. International Journal of Commerce and Management, 11 (3), 1-34.
Parnell, J. &Carraher, S. (2002). Passing the buck: Managing upward delegation in organizations.
Central Business Review, 21 (1), 20-27.
Parnell, J. &Carraher, S. (2003). The Management Education by Internet Readiness (MEBIR) scale:
Developing a scale to assess one’s propensity for Internet-mediated management education.
Journal of Management Education, 27, 431-446.
Parnell, J. &Carraher, S. (2005). Validating the management education by Internet readiness (MEBIR)
scale with samples of American, Chinese, and Mexican students. Journal of Education for
Business, 81 (1), 47-54.
Parnell, J., Carraher, S., & Holt, K. (2002). Participative management’s influence on effective strategic
diffusion. Journal of Business Strategies, 19 (2), 161-180.
Parnell, J. Carraher, S., & Odom, R. (2000) Strategy and Performance in the Entrepreneurial Computer
Software Industry. Journal of Business & Entrepreneurship, 12 (3), 49-66.
Parnell, J.A., Koseoglu, M.A., Behtas, C., &Carraher, S.M. (2010). Knowledge management,
organizational communication and job satisfaction: An empirical test of a five-star hotel in
Turkey. International Journal of Leisure and Tourism Marketing, 1 (4), 323-343.
Parnell, J., Mintu-Wimsatt, A., &Carraher, S. (2002). Trust in Internet shopping and its correlates: A
cross-cultural investigation. The E-Business Review, 2, 195-201.
Ruhm, C. J. (2007). Current and Future Prevalence of Obesity and Severe Obesity in the United
States. Forum For Health Economics & Policy, 10(2), 1-26.
Scarpello, V. &Carraher, S.M. (2008). Are pay satisfaction and pay fairness the same construct? A
cross-country examination among the self-employed in Latvia, Germany, the UK, and the USA.
Baltic Journal of Management, 3 (1), 23-39.
Seladurai, R. &Carraher, S.M. (2014). Servant Leadership: Research and Practice. IGI Global
Business Science Reference.
Sethi, V. &Carraher, S. (1993). Developing measures for assessing the organizational impact of information
technology: A comment on Mahmood and Soon's paper. Decision Sciences, 24, 867-877.
Smothers, J., Hayek, M., Bynum, L.A., Novicevic, M.M., Buckley, M.R., &Carraher, S.M.
(2010). Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.: Historical impact and historical scope of his works.
Journal of Management History, 16 (4), 521-526.
Standen, P., Daniels, K and Lamond, D. (1999) The home as a work place: work-family interaction and
psychological well-being in telework. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 368-381.
Sturman, M. &Carraher, S. (2007). Using a Random-effects model to test differing conceptualizations of
multidimensional constructs. Organizational Research Methods, 10 (1), 108-135.
July 1-2, 2015
Cambridge, UK
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2015 Cambridge Business & Economics Conference
ISBN : 9780974211428
Sullivan, S.E., Carraher, S.M., Baker, L., Cochrane, D., & Robinson, F. (2009). The entrepreneurial
dilemma: Grow or status quo?: A real case. Journal of Applied Management &
Entrepreneurship, 14 (4), 37-53.
Sullivan, S., Crocitto, M. &Carraher, S. (2006). Chapter 4 The fundamentals of reviewing. In Y. Baruch, S.
Sullivan, & H., Schepmyer (Eds). Winning Reviews: A Guide for Evaluating Scholarly Writing.
Palgrave Macmillan. Pp 65-78.
Sullivan, S.E., Forret, M., Carraher, S.M., &Mainiero, L. (2009). Using the kaleidoscope career model
to examine generational differences in work attitudes. Career Development International, 14
(3), 284-302.
US Burden of Disease Collaborators. The State of US Health, 1990-2010: Burden of Diseases,
Injuries, and Risk Factors. JAMA. 2013;310(6):591-606. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.13805.
VanAuken, H. &Carraher, S.M. (2012). An analysis of funding decisions for niche agricultural
producers. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 17 (2), 12500121-125001215.
Van Auken, H. &Carraher, S. (2013). Influences on frequency of preparation of financial statements
among SMEs. Journal of Innovation Management, 1(1), 143-157.
Wang, G.G., Lamond, D. and Zhang, Y.C. (2013) Innovation and Chinese HRM research and practice:
Problems and promises.Journal of Chinese Human Resource Management 4(1),105–116.
Wang, G.G., Zhang, Y.C., Lamond, D. and Ke, J. (2014) Moving forward: Exploring unique Chinese
phenomena and advancing HRM research. Journal of Chinese Human Resource Management, 5(1), 2–13.
Welsh, D.H.B. &Carraher, S.M. (2009). An examination of the relationship between the mission of the
university, the business school, and the entrepreneurship center: An application of Chandler’s
strategy and structure hypothesis. Journal of Applied Management & Entrepreneurship, 14
(4), 25-36.
Welsh, D.H. &Carraher, S.M. (2011). Case Studies in Global Entrepreneurship. Kendall Hunt P.
Williams, M.L., Brower, H.H., Ford, L.R., Williams, L.J., &Carraher, S.M. (2008). A comprehensive model
and measure of compensation satisfaction. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,
81 (4), 639-668.
Yuyuenyongwatana, R. &Carraher, S.M. (2008/2009). Academic journal ranking: Important to strategic
management and general management researchers? Journal of Business Strategies, 25 (2), 1-8.
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