• Conception is when sperm and egg meet
and fertilization occurs
• Sperm - one of the tiniest cells in the human
body
• Conception occurs in the outer third of the
fallopian tube
• Zygote - fertilized egg
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Improving the Chances of
Conception
 • Time intercourse so it occurs around time of
 ovulation
 • Sperm live inside a woman’s body for up to
 5 days
 • Egg is capable of being fertilized for about
 the first 12 to 24 hours after ovulation
 • Position during and after intercourse is
 important
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Symptoms of Pregnancy
 • Missed menstrual period
 • Breast tenderness
 • Morning sickness
 • More frequent urination
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Diagnostic Signs of Pregnancy
 • Presumptive Signs: breast changes,
 amenorrhea, nausea, vomiting, fatigue,
 frequent urination
 • Probable Signs: Positive pregnancy test,
 physical changes in the uterus
 • Positive Signs: Ultrasound or X-ray of
 fetus, fetal heartbeat, fetal movement
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Pregnancy Tests
 Physician tests:
 – Immunologic test based on detection of hCG
 – Beta-hCG radioimmunoassay
 • Home pregnancy tests
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Development of the Conceptus
 • Nine months of pregnancy are divided into
 three equal periods of three months - called
 trimesters
 – First trimester - months 1 to 3
 – Second trimester - months 4 to 6
 – Third trimester - months 7 to 9
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The Embryo and Its Support
Systems
 • Placenta - an organ formed on the wall of the
 uterus through which the fetus receives oxygen
 and nutrients and gets rid of waste products
 • Human chorionic gonadotropin - a hormone
 secreted by the placenta; it is the substance
 detected in pregnancy tests
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The Embryo and Its Support
Systems
 • Umbilical cord - the tube that connects the fetus to
the placenta
 • Amniotic fluid - the watery fluid surrounding a
developing fetus in the uterus
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Fetal Development During the
First Trimester
• Develops into a fetus with most of the
major organ systems present
• 4th to 8th week - external body parts
develop
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Fetal Development During the
First Trimester
• 7th week - liver, lungs, pancreas, kidneys,
and intestines have formed and begun
limited functioning
• End of 12th week - 10 centimeters long;
weighs 19 grams
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Fetal Development During the
Second Trimester
• Quickening occurs - women becomes aware
of fetal movements
– around the end of the 14th week
• Fetal heart beat can be detected
• Fetus opens its eyes
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Fetal Development During the
Third Trimester
• Fetus’s skin is wrinkled and covered with
downlike hair
• Fetus turns in uterus to assume a head-down
position
• Fetus experiences rapid growth
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Physical Changes: First
Trimester
• Large increase in levels of hormones
• Breasts swell and tingle; development of
mammary glands
• Need to urinate
• Morning sickness
• Vaginal discharges may increase
• Feelings of fatigue and sleepiness
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Psychological Changes
• Depression is common
• Negative emotions
• Positive feelings
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Physical Changes: Second
Trimester
• Morning sickness disappears
• Constipation and nosebleeds sometimes
occur
• Edema - water retention and swelling
• Colostrum may come out of the nipple
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Psychological Changes
• Psychological well-being is greater among
women who have social support
• Depression higher in some studies
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The Father’s Role in Pregnancy
• Couvade syndrome - male pregnancy
Symptoms(a condition in which a man experiences some of
the same symptoms and behavior of an expectant mother.)
• The father-to-be - many choose to be
actively involved
• Diversity in the contexts of pregnancy there are lots of various family contexts that
exist today
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Sex During Pregnancy
• Intercourse can continue safely until 4
weeks before the baby is due
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Nutrition During Pregnancy
• Diet during is extremely important
• Woman must get enough protein, folic acid,
calcium, magnesium and vitamin A
• The fetus comes first – it draws the
nutrients it needs first, and whatever is left
is for mom
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Nutrition Deficiencies
• Calcium – future risk of bone and tooth loss
• Folic acid – (folate) much higher risk of
neural tube defects. (decreases risk by 50%)
• Zinc – malformations of the central nervous
system
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Effects of Drugs Taken During
Pregnancy
• Teratogens - a substance that produces
defects in a fetus
• Antibiotics - may damage fetus
• Alcohol - may cause fetal alcohol syndrome
• Cocaine - increased risk of premature birth
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Effects of Drugs Taken During
Pregnancy
• Steroids - can cause masculinization of a
female fetus and other fetal damages
• Other drugs - check with physician and
“when in doubt, don’t”
• Dads and drugs
– drugs can damage sperm and their genetic
content
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Birth: The Beginning of Labor
• Bloody show(During pregnancy, your cervical opening
becomes blocked with a thick plug of mucus that
prevents bacteria from entering the uterus. When your
cervix begins to loosen, this mucous plug is
dislodged.)
• Amniotic sac ruptures
• Progesterone-withdrawal theory
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The Stages of Labor
• Labor divided into 3 stages
• Parturition - whole process of childbirth
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First-Stage Labor
• Regular contraction of uterus muscles
• Effacement
• Dilation
• Divided into 3 stages:
– Early first-stage labor (0-5 cm)
– Late first-stage labor (5-8 cm)
– Transition phase (8-10cm)
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Second-Stage Labor: Delivery
• Begins when cervix is fully dilated
• Urge to push or bear down
• Crowning
– top of the head is visible
• Episiotomy may be performed
– incision that is sometimes made at the vaginal
entrance during birth
• Baby is born
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Third-Stage Labor
• Placenta detaches from walls of the uterus
• Afterbirth is expelled
• Several contractions may accompany
placental expulsion
• Episiotomy and tears are sewn up
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Cesarean Section
• A method of delivering a baby surgically,
by an incision in the abdomen
• Reasons to have a C Section:
– Baby is too large, mother’s pelvis is too small
– Cervix is not dilating
– Umbilical cord prolapses(comes out of place)
– Excessive bleeding
– Placenta previa(blocks cervix)
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After the Baby is Born: The
Postpartum Period
• Physical changes
– Hormones levels return to normal
– Woman may feel exhausted
– Discomfort from episiotomy
• Psychological changes
– Postpartum depression
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Attachment to the Baby
• Bonding can occur before baby is born
• Critical period of bonding occurs in minutes
and hours immediately after birth
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Sex During Postpartum
• Couple should wait at least 2 weeks before
resuming intercourse
• If woman had an episiotomy, she may
experience vaginal discomfort
Sex may not be resumed for up to 6 weeks in some cases.
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Breast-Feeding
Biological mechanisms
– Prolactin - stimulates breasts to produce milk
– Oxytocin - stimulates breasts to eject milk
• Physical and mental health
– Breast feeding is encouraged
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Problem Pregnancies
• Ectopic pregnancy - fertilized egg implants
somewhere other than the uterus
• Pseudocyesis - false pregnancy
• Pregnancy-induced hypertension – too much stress for
mother to be able to handle.
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Problem Pregnancies
• Viral illness during pregnancy
• Birth defects
• Rh incompatibility
• Miscarriage - spontaneous abortion
• Preterm birth
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Infertility
• Refers to a woman’s inability to conceive
and give birth to a living child, or a man’s
inability to impregnate a woman
• Causes - can be either female factors or
male factors
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Causes in the Female
• Pelvic inflammatory disease
• Failure to ovulate
• Blockage of the fallopian tubes
• Hostile mucus
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Causes in the Male
• Infections in the reproductive system caused
by sexually transmitted diseases
• Low sperm count
• Low motility of the sperm
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Combined Factors
• Immunologic response
• Lack of knowledge
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Psychological Aspects of
Infertility
• Couple subjected to psychological stress
• Man may feel that his masculinity or virility
is in question
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Treatment of Infertility
• Fertility drugs
• Microsurgery
• New reproductive technologies
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Assisted Reproductive Technologies
• Artificial insemination - sperm are placed
into vagina by means other than sexual
intercourse
• Sperm banks
• Embryo transfer - embryo is transferred into
uterus, usually from the lab.
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New Reproductive Technologies
• Test-tube babies - in vitro fertilization - egg
is fertilized by sperm in a laboratory dish
• GIFT - gamete intra-fallopian transfer
• ZIFT - zygote intra-fallopian transfer
• Cloning
• Gender selection
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