Maastike taju ja
esteetika
Kalkahjumägi, Laanemetsa, Valgamaa
Allikad:
• Lothian, Andrew 1999: Landscape and the philosophy of
aesthetics: is landscape quality inherent in the landscape or in
the eye of the beholder? Landscape and Urban Planning, 44.1
• Appleton, Jay 1986: The Experience of Landscape.
• Higuchi, Tadahiko 1983: The Visual Structure of Landscapes
• Saarinen, Thomas F. 1974: Environmental perception. In:
Manners, Ian R., Marvin W. Mikesell (eds.) Perspectives on
Environment.
• Lehari, Kaia 2001: Loodus, keskkond või maastik? TÜ
Geograafia instituudi toimetised, 91
Kuidas maastikku tajume?
• Granö: maastiku nähtavad (valgus, värvid, vormid), kuulmis(helid), haistmis- (lõhnad) ning kompimismeelega tajutavad
(soojus, niiskus, vastupidavusomadused - surve, takistus,
kallakus, kandvus) omadused.
• Yi-Fu Tuan: ruumi tajumisel kuulub juhtkoht nägemismeelele.
Teised meeled laiendavad ning rikastavad visuaalset ruumi.
Helid lisavad maastikule "elu" (dramatizes spatial experience):
hääletu maastik tundub rahulik ja elutu, kuigi silm võib samal
ajal fikseerida liikumist, tegevust. Lõhn võib väljendada ka
massi ja ruumala (mahtu): mõned lõhnad tunduvad suured ja
rasked, teised õrnad, kerged, õhukesed. Naha tundlikkuski võib
olla abiks maastiku tajumisel: nahk registreerib näiteks niiskust,
pehmust jms.
Keskkonnataju mudel
Väärtushinnangud
Tajuretseptorid
Reaalne maailm
Kujutis
Otsus
Informatsioon
Käitumine
Taju seaduspärad
?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Some Gestalt-laws and their effect upon describing spatial patterns: (a) law of proximity and
similarity in shape, (b) law of vertical dominance, (c) law of the reduction to simple
geometric shapes, (d) the whole is more than the sum of its components.
Millest taju sõltub
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Viewpoint
Range of vision
Direction
Principal feature
Distance
Uehara Kenji
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Distance
Observer position
Form
Spatial definition
Light
Sequence
RB Litton Jr
Millest sõltub maastike visuaalne
struktuur
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Nähtavus või nähtamatus
Kaugus
Vaatenurk
Nähtamatuse sügavus
Angle of depression
Angle of elevation
Sügavus
Valgus
Kaugus
• Changes (size, sharpness and hue) that take place
in the appearance of an object as the distance
between the observer and the object varies; from
these indexes we discover the visibility of the
landscape's texture.
• As the distance from the object increases, a
gradual (quantitative) change in the appearance of
the object becomes a qualitative change.
Vaatenurk
• When a landscape is conceived of as a concatenation of
surfaces, the angle at which the line of vision strikes each
surface determines which planes should be taken as
frontal and which as longitudinal planes which to a large
degree settles the relative visibility and the range of a
vision (vertically and horizontally). The same index, set at
a value of 0 degrees, tells us where is the skyline forming
the boundaries of the landscape. Angles of depression and
elevation indicates the nature of up- and downward view.
By ascertaining the distances and elevation angles of
surfaces having large angles of incidence, we can decide
whether the visual space is open or closed.
Vaate sügavus
• Depth of the visual space – determines the visual
perception of three-dimensionality of the landscape as it
unfolds before the viewer (viewer’s sense of position).
• Depth is an effect, first, of a continuous change in the
surface of the terrain (3D) and, second, of atmospheric
perspective or the overlapping of objects viewed.
• longitudinal planes (parallel to the line of vision) having
low angles of incidence would be perceived as having a
textural density gradient, i.e. a gradual rise in the density
of the texture as the distance from the viewer increases.
Kattumine
• Overlapping of two objects leads to a
certain sense of perspective as the one
object of which a part is hidden is
recognized as being behind and therefore
farther away than the others
Valgus
• The appearance of a landscape changes drastically in
accordance with the manner in which the light strikes it.
This index has to do with the transformations that take
place as the position of the source of light moves from
front to side to back. The light index would show the
frequency with which sunlight falls on a given object on
each side. Lighting and weather conditions play an
important role in creating mystic or fantastic settings with
its constant changes and transformations
Atmosfääri läbipaistvus
• With natural landscapes that involve distances of several
kilometres or several tens of kilometres, the degree of
atmospheric haziness becomes a factor, then discernibility
(distinctness that makes perception easy) is often a question not
so much of angle of vision as of the contrast between an object
and its background.
• When the air is dry and clear, distant features appear to be
nearby; when it is misty, nearby features appear to be far away.
• Even on very clear days visibility in the morning and evening is
less than half what it is at midday. Visibility is reduced even
more drastically under rainy or snowy conditions. It is difficult
to generalize on this subject beyond remarking that visibility
decreases rapidly as the humidity rises above 70 percent.
Maastiku ruumiline liigestus
• intiimne (intimate)
• normaalne (normal)
• avalik (public)
inimmõõde (human
scale)
•
•
•
•
Blumenfeld
Hall
intiiimne (intimate)
personaalne (personal)
sotsiaalne (social)
avalik (public) kaugus
Higuchi ruumiliigestus
• Lähivaate puhul tajutakse puid üksikute puudena, on näha
tüved, oksad. Võib kuulda tuule kohinat ja näha okste
liikumist.
• Keskvaate puhul eristame puude latvu, kuid mitte muud.
Nähakse pigem metsa kui puid. Keskvaate puhul hakkavad
maastiku tajumist mõjutama atmosfääri optilised omadused.
Ka reljeef mõjutab maastikust saadavat muljet.
• Kaugvaate puhul ei eristu enam puude ladvadki, nähakse
vaid reljeefi ja seda, kas see on metsane või mitte. Ei tajuta
värvusi, vaid ainult heledust.
Purvinase visuaalsed ruumid
• Visual space (визуaльнoe пространствo, мecтнocть) –
elementary/primary unit/element of perceptive spatial
structure (district image), which man can individually
perceive as one unit from every point of this space that
expresses human scale in space; exists in reality bordered by
visual impediments (Purvinas, 1975; 1982).
• Image of visual space (oбpaз пространствa, мecтнocти)
– perception of visual space, individual concrete impression
(Purvinas, 1975).
• District image (кpaeoбpaз) – long-term impressions stored
and piled by help of human memory/subconscious, sum of
images of visual spaces, result of generalisation and typifying
of concrete impressions (Purvinas, 1975).
Proposed characteristics of spatial structure
of visual space:
• 1. Visual space’s place in hierarchy of spatial structure of
district image;
• 2. Size of visual space – mean radius of observation is
statistically 85% of visual space diameter. Different sizes
of spaces are perceived differently and evoke different
emotions (main radiuses: 100, 450, 2000 and > 2000 m);
• 3. Shape of configuration – it has to be stretched out or
compact, otherwise it would be not perceived as one unit;
• 4. Horizontal plane of vision in height of 2 meters
(approximately the height of human eyes; Higuchi
considered it to be 1.5 m);
Proposed characteristics of spatial structure
of visual space:
• 6. Visual impediments – objects higher than horizontal plane,
obstacles to the line of horizon; separating concrete visual space from
neighbouring visual spaces; size of impediment is dependent on its
actual height and from distance of observer;
• a) Horizontal closeness – isolation from neighbouring spaces: if
85% of line of horizon is blocked then this visual space is horizontally
closed, medium closeness is 65-85%, horizontal visual openness of
visual space is when less than 30% of line of horizon is blocked;
• b) Vertical closeness – if 85% of perimeter of visual space is
covered with impediments > 45° then visual space is totally vertically
closed, if 18-45° then partly vertically closed territory;
Proposed characteristics of spatial structure
of visual space:
• 5. Line of horizon – parts of horizon seen between or
over visual impediments in the height of horizontal plane;
• 7. Visual connections to neighbouring visual spaces –
parts of other visual spaces that can be seen between or
over visual impediments;
• 8. Arrangement of different components.
Maastiku esteetilisus on
• “maastiku ilu, tema veetlevus
(privlekatel`nost`), mis on vajalik inimese
vaimse tervise säilimiseks ja normaalse
puhkuse tagamiseks".
Reimers 1990
Esteetika kaks paradigmat
• Objektivistlik - maastike kvaliteet on
füüsikaline omadus, mida saab mõõta
sarnaselt teistele füüsikalistele suurustele
• Subjektivistlik - maastiku ilu on meie
kujutusvõime vili, mis moodustub vaataja
kultuurilisest, sotsiaalsest ja
psühholoogilisest tagapõhjast
Mis on esteetiline?
• Leedu koolkond: kogu looduskeskkond, mis kutsub
inimeses esile esteetilist rahuldust
• Vene koolkond: looduslik tuleb ümber kujundada, siis
muutub ta veel esteetilisemaks
• A. Niine (1976): linnamaastike esteetika seisneb parkide
ja haljasalade ilus, kusjuures ilus on ökonoomne ja
funktsionaalne
Mis on esteetiline?
• Gifford (1987): loodusmaastik ilusam kui linnamaastik.
• M. Jones (1991): maastikule antav väärtushinnang sõltub
vaatleja
rahvustundest,
majanduslikest
huvidest,
sotsiaalsest kuluvusest ja erialasest haridusest
• vaatleja kultuuritaust ning selle paiga ilme, kus vaatleja on
üles kasvanud.
• kristluse vastuvõtmise aeg
• vaatleja samastumine maastikuga, identiteeditunne.
Maastikueelistuse kujunemine
Appletoni järgi
• Habitat theory: Aesthetic satisfaction, experienced in the
contemplation of landscape, stems from the spontaneous
perception of landscape features which, in their shapes,
colors, spatial arrangements and other visible attributes, act
as sign-stimuli indicative of environmental conditions
favorable to survival, whether they really are favorable or
not.
• Prospect-refuge theory: The ability to see without being
seen is conductive to the exploitation of environmental
conditions favorable to biological survival and is therefore
a source of pleasure.
Maastikueelistuste kujunemine
Bourassa järgi
• The landscape taste of any individual stems from biological
laws. These are cross-cultural, genetically transmitted elements
of survival behavior.
• Out of these biological laws, each cultural group begins to
develop its own particular ways of seeing; its cultural rules
impose its own system of values, its own criteria of excellence,
determined in accordance with its own fashions, customs and
conventions.
• Cultural groups in turn are made up of the individuals who
comprise them, and each individual forges his own personal
strategy, his own unique mix of meanings, preferences and
typical behavioral responses, out of his inherited behavior
patterns and within the context of the cultural rules imposed by
the group at whatever scale - the family, the peer group, the
nation state, etc.
ärritav
rahutu, ärev
aktiivne
hirmutav
erutav
masendav
rõõmus
meeldiv
ebameeldiv
mugav
rõhuv
sünge
rahulik, lõdvestav
tüütav
unine
mitteärritav
Joonis 2. Emotsioonide kaks põhilist mõõdet ning nende hübriidid Russell-Pratti skaala (Gifford, 1987).
Väike välitöö 
• Looduslikkus - suure ulatuse, kõrge parima koha ja kõrge
looduslikkuse, aga samuti mõnevõrra nõrgema laadungiga
kõrge keskmise koha ja hilisema aastaaja. Niisiis, need on
looduslikud suvised maastikud, mida hinnatakse üldiselt kõrgelt,
kuid mis siiski põhjustavad suuri lahknevusi eelistustes..
• Mittemidagiütlevus: tugevalt seotud mitteärritavuse ja
madala halvima kohaga eelistusreas. Keskmise tugevusega
seosed osutavad eelmisest veelgi hilisemale aastaajale ning
keskmisest madalamale eelistusele.
• Liigestatus: tugevalt positiivselt korreleeritud reljeefi
liigestatusega ja negatiivselt korreleeritud veega.
• Panoraamsus: seotud vaate ulatusega. Ka iseloomustavad
seda faktorit keskmisest suurem meeldivus ja keskmisest
väiksem ärritavus.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Erutav, loovat innustust
esilekutsuv
Ergutav, reipust
esilekutsuv
Säästev, endasse
süvenemist soodustav
Kasulikult piduirdav,
täielikku rahu loov
Rekreatsiooniks
vähesobiv