Psychology of MC
Memory
Memory
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqkQKZYDImM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1w9ulhUrvZc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nNh3wAqzjM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rJkdTXYhKXo
Memory
Memory
- Ability of the CNS to store and use information about previous
experiences.
- Phases:
- coding (encoding)
- Storage (retention)
- Retrieval (recall or recallection) - calling back the stored
information in response to some cue for use in a process or
activity
Memory
Encoding
Information is stored to memory in various form – visual, acoustic,
semantic.
Most benefitial: process experience using as much senses as possible –
increased probability ot permanent encoding.
Example: small kids have the ability of eidetic image (image stored to
memory) much better visual form (pexeso memory game).
Memory
Learning curve
Shows improvement of learning (performance) or reduction of
errors during learning process (or both) after repetitions. It shows
that the beginning of learning process is slow then there is a steep
acceleration of learning process and at the end the increments are
small again.
Placebo effect
Memory
Storage - retention
To support retention the information about be organized in a logical
whole. We can easily recall and reproduce information that are
important for us. The importance is based on our motivation, personnal
needs or connection to strong emotion.
Lack of attention - Attention plays a key role in storing information into
long-term memory; without proper attention, the information might
not be stored, making it impossible to be retrieved later.
Most benefitial: systematic, purposeful learning, connection with
examples, practical training. Mechanic learning – short term, the info
disappears soon.
Memory
Forgetting
Forgetting – apparent loss of information already encoded and stored
in an individual's long term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual
process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory
storage
Many different factors influence the actual process of forgetting. An
example of one of these factors could be the amount of time the new
information is stored in the memory. Events involved with forgetting
can happen either before or after the actual memory process. The
amount of time the information is stored in the memory, depending on
the minutes hours or even days, can increase or decrease depending on
how well the information is encoded. Studies show that retention
improves the increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because
rehearsal helps to transfer information into long term memory.
Memory
Forgetting
Most people remember: 10 % out of what they read, 20 % out of what
they hear, 30 % out of what they see, 50 % out of what they hear and
see, 70 % out of what they say, 90 % out of what they do.
Memory
Herman Ebbinghaus – 1885 – research of processes of memory
loss.
Hermann Ebbinghaus ran a limited, incomplete study on himself
and published his hypothesis in 1885 as Über das Gedächtnis (later
translated into English as Memory: A Contribution to Experimental
Psychology). Ebbinghaus studied the memorisation of nonsense
syllables, such as "WID" and "ZOF" by repeatedly testing himself
after various time periods and recording the results. He plotted
these results on a graph creating what is now known as the
"forgetting curve".
From his discovery regarding the "forgetting curve", Ebbinghaus
came up with the effects of "overlearning". Essentially, if you
practiced something more than what is usually necessary to
memorize it, you would have effectively achieved overlearning.
Overlearning ensures that information is more impervious to being
lost or forgotten, and the forgetting curve for this overlearned
material is shallower
Memory
Ebbinghaus hypothesized that the speed of forgetting depends on a
number of factors such as the difficulty of the learned material (e.g.
how meaningful it is), its representation and physiological factors
such as stress and sleep. He further hypothesized that the basal
forgetting rate differs little between individuals. He concluded that
the difference in performance (e.g. at school) can be explained by
mnemonic representation skills.
He went on to hypothesize that basic training in mnemonic
techniques can help overcome those differences in part. He
asserted that the best methods for increasing the strength of
memory are:
• better memory representation (e.g. with mnemonic techniques)
• repetition based on active recall
Memory
His premise was that each repetition in learning increases the
optimum interval before the next repetition is needed (for nearperfect retention, initial repetitions may need to be made within
days, but later they can be made after years).
Later research suggested that, other than the two factors
Ebbinghaus proposed, higher original learning would also produce
slower forgetting
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve: we forget most within first hours after
learning. The amount of forgotten information after 5 days and a
month does not differ much.
Memory
Forgetting curve
X axis – elapsed time since learning,
Y axis - how much you remember from the total amount.
We forget most during the first hour. To remember what you learn, you should
recap it after an hour, than the next day and in a week. If you really have to store
it permanently you should repeat it again in a month.
Memory
Ebbinghaus is also credited with discovering an optical illusion now
known after its discoverer—the Ebbinghaus illusion, which is an
illusion of relative size perception. In the best-known version of this
illusion, two circles of identical size are placed near to each other and
one is surrounded by large circles while the other is surrounded by
small circles; the first central circle then appears smaller than the
second central circle. This illusion is now used extensively in research
in cognitive psychology, to find out more about the various perception
pathways in our brain.
Memory
Memory experiment of Ebbinghaus
Řada 1
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9
Reduced number of repetitions
Memory
Retrieval
There are three main types of recall:
• free recall
• cued recall, and
• serial recall.
Memory
Free recall
process in which a person is given a list of items to remember and then
is tested by being asked to recall them in any order.
Free recall often displays evidence of primacy and recency effects.
Primacy effects - when the person recalls items presented at the
beginning of the list earlier and more often.
The recency effect - when the person recalls items presented at the
end of the list earlier and more often.
Memory
Cued recall
Cues act as guides to what the person is supposed to remember. A cue
can be virtually anything that may act as a reminder, e.g. a smell, song,
color, place etc.
In contrast to free recall, the subject is prompted to remember a
certain item on the list or remember the list in a certain order. Cued
recall also plays into free recall because when cues are provided to a
subject, they will remember items on the list that they did not
originally recall without a cue.
Memory
Serial recall
- ability to recall items or events in the order in which they occurred.
The ability of humans to store items in memory and recall them is
important to the use of language.
- Serial-order also helps us remember the order of events in our
lives, our autobiographical memories. Our memory of our past
appears to exist on a continuum on which more recent events are
more easily remembered in order.
Memory
Interference
One of the factors that influence retrieving.
Proactive interference
Proactive interference is the "forgetting due to interference from the
traces of events or learning that occurred prior to the materials to be
remembered.„
Proactive interference occurs when in any given context, past
memories inhibit an individual’s full potential to retain new
memories.
Memory
Interference
Retroactive interference
Retroactive interference (RI) is a phenomenon that occurs when
newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of
previously learned information.
If compared to proactive interference, studies show that Retroactive
interference can have larger effects because of the fact that there is
not only competition involved, but also unlearning.
Plate number of a new car
Memory
Types of memory
a) Based on the time the information is remembered
• Sensoric
• Short term
• Mid-term
• Long term
Memory
b) Based on how the information is stored
• Visual
• Acoustic
• Semantic (meaining of information)
Memory
c) How we store info
• Mechanical – word by word
• Logical – context, relations between subject, events
Memory
Senzory memory
Sensory memory holds sensory information for a few seconds or less
after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item, and
remember what it looked like with just a second of observation, or
memorisation, is an example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive
control and is an automatic response. This type of memory cannot be
prolonged via rehearsal.
There are three types of sensory memories.
• Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information, a type
of sensory memory that briefly stores an image which has been
perceived for a small duration.
• Echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information,
another type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds that
have been perceived for short durations.
• Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a
database for touch stimuli.
Memory
Short term memory (working memory)
Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a
minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited
The store of short-term memory was 7±2 items, some modern
estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of
the order of 4–5 items
Memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking.
A man just beginning to learn radio-telegraphic code hears each dit
and dah as a separate chunk. Soon he is able to organize these sounds
into letters and then he can deal with the letters as chunks. Then the
letters organize themselves as words, which are still larger chunks, and
he begins to hear whole phrases
Memory
Short term memory (working memory)
For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could
chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123),
then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk (7890). This
method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than
attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are
able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This
may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display
telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers.
Memory
Short-term memory
Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for
storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code.
1974 - the general concept of short term memory was replaced with
an active maintenance of information in the short term storage.
In this model, working memory consists of three basic stores: the
central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial
sketchpad.
Memory
Memory
Phonological loop
An auditory verbal information is assumed to enter automatically into
the phonological store. Visually presented language can be
transformed into phonological code by silent articulation and thereby
be encoded into the phonological store. This transformation is
facilitated by the articulatory control process. The phonological store
acts as an "inner ear", remembering speech sounds in their temporal
order, whilst the articulatory process acts as an "inner voice" and
repeats the series of words (or other speech elements) on a loop to
prevent them from decaying. The phonological loop may play a key
role in the acquisition of vocabulary, particularly in the early
childhood years. It may also be vital for learning a second language.
Memory
Visuospatial sketchpad
The visuospatial sketchpad is assumed to hold information about
what we see. It is used in the temporary storage and manipulation of
spatial and visual information, such as remembering shapes and
colours, or the location or speed of objects in space. It is also involved
in tasks which involve planning of spatial movements, like planning
one's way through a complex building. The visuospatial sketchpad can
be divided into separate visual, spatial and possibly kinaesthetic
(movement) components. It is principally represented within the right
hemisphere of the brain.
Memory
Central executive
The central executive is a flexible system responsible for the control
and regulation of cognitive processes. It has the following functions:
• binding information from a number of sources into coherent
episodes
• coordination of the slave systems
• shifting between tasks or retrieval strategies
• selective attention and inhibition
It can be thought of as a supervisory system that controls cognitive
processes and intervenes when they go astray.
Memory
Long term memory
• Relativelly passiv part of memory, unconscious
• Hypothetically unlimited capacity
• Stores important experiences we need to perform activities, tu
survive.
For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it
for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in
our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember
telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this
information is said to be stored in long-term memory.
Memory
Long term memory
We easily remember logical information or experiences with emotions
(those we retrieve easily, too). Such information is considered
important by our memory and stores them long term.
Long-term memory: from 4 years of age
Memory
Long term memory
Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that some conscious
process must call back the information. It is sometimes called explicit
memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and
retrieved.
Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into
• Semantic memory, which concerns facts taken independent of
context (Pythagoras rule);
• Episodic memory, which concerns information specific to a
particular context, such as a time and place.
• Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge
about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France".
• Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within
one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a
subset of, episodic memory.
• Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics
of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in
memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or
people in sort of a mental image.
Memory
Long term memory
Procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the
conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. Procedural
memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be
considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does
better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories
have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those
previous experiences.
A characteristic of procedural memory is that the things that are
remembered are automatically translated into actions, and thus
sometimes difficult to describe. Some examples of procedural memory
are the ability to ride a bike or tie shoelaces.
Memory
Long-term memory
Retrieval of information influenced by :
•
External situation /environment/
• Internal context (mood, emotion). Retrieval is easier when we
are in the same environment or emotional state as we were
during encoding.
Memory
Repetition, rehearsal
Short term memory
Loss
Long term
memory
Memory
Mid-term memory
Stores information for about 20 minutes, in case of rehearsal, we
may move the info to long-term memory.
Memory
b) Based on how the information is stored
• Visual
• Acoustic
• Semantic (meaining of information)
Memory
Visual memory
Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some
characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. We are
able to place in memory visual information which resembles objects,
places, animals or people in a mental image. The experience of visual
memory is also referred to as the mind's eye through which we can
retrieve from our memory a mental image of original objects, places,
animals or people. Visual memory is one of several cognitive systems,
which are all interconnected parts that combine to form the human
memory.
Text in the book,
Memory
Acoustic memory
Helps us to remember melodies, words, sentences – thanks to that we
easily memorize poems, roles, foreign languages.
Memory
Spatial memory
Spatial memory is a person’s knowledge of the space around them,
and their whereabouts in it. It also encompasses all memories of areas
and places, and how to get to and from them. Spatial memory is
distinct from object memory and involves different parts of the brain.
However many times both types of memory are used together, such as
when trying to remember where you put a lost object.
Spatial memory is always being used whenever a person is moving any
part of their body.
Memory
c) How we store :
• Mechanically – word by word
• Logically
Memory
Logical memory – we remember logical context. Thanks to that we
can induce, derive …. Usually this type of memory is selective –
biological vs. Social science
Mechanical memory - we remember even if we do not understand.
Mentally handicapped people sometimes have fhenomenal mechanic
memory
Memory
• Logical memory: the efficiency of mechanical memory is reduced
with age, the logical improves (learning languages when young)
Sleeping – necessity, brain needs thaz to consolidate (integrate the
new into existing schemes)
Učení a zapomínání
• Test 2
Memory
Impact of emotions on memory
• We tend to remember more the things that evoke strong emotions
Memory
Memory
Impact of repetitions on memory
• We tend to remember more the information that we
rehearsed/repeated several times
• The repetition has to be spread over a certain period (better then
learning and rehearsal in a short period of time)
Memory
Marketing
The advertisement has to evoke emotions, thanks to that people
will remember it more.
The second goal is to remember the advertisement – it relates to
frequency (how often we see it).
The advertisement however has to also call for action (makes us
to buy) – AIDA
Memory
Lenght of advertisement
The longer the ad is the more time the brain has to absorb the
information. Thus we better remember it.
Frequency
The more frequently we see the ad the more we remember it.
Memory
Memory test
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/stm18.html
Memory
Souvislost s marketingem
Paměť levé a pravé hemisféry
Herbert Krugman: meření rozpoznání a vzpomenutí uvedl do
souvislosti s činností hemisfér
Recall and recognition
Rozpoznání je emocionální činnost, vzpomenutí je logická
činnost.
Rozpoznání – využívá pravou hemisféru, vzpomenutí levou
(logické myšlení)
Tisková reklama je většinou logická, televizní emocionální.
U televizní reklamy je proto správnou metodou rozpoznání
(recognition), u tiskové reklamy vzpomenutí.
Memory
Vliv organizace materiálu na paměť
• Obecně platí, že člověk si mnohem lépe ty informace, které může
interpretovat v kontextu toho, co už zná
Lépe si zapamatujete studijní materiál, když si letmo projdete kapitolu a
získáte přehled o hlavních bodech ještě před tím, než si začnete detailně
číst. Je proto také výhodnou si před přednáškou přečíst příslušnou
kapitolu, vaše mysl tak bude lépe připravená kódovat a pamatovat si
informace prezentované na přednášce
Učení a zapomínání
Vliv hloubky zpracování na paměť
Člověk si mnohem lépe ty informace, na jejichž zpracování a
analýzu vynaložil více času a úsilí
Člověk si lépe pamatuje ta slova, u nichž musí přemýšlet o jejich
významu (sémantickém obsahu), než ta slova, která se musí pouze
mechanicky naučit…
Entelechia….
Učení a zapomínání
Reklamy
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Hot body – fitness
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