Rhetoric: definitions and a structure for analysis
I.
Formal definition of Rhetoric
A.
the way a person uses language to create a message
B.
“the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion”
(Aristotle)
C.
Rhetoric is something you already use everyday. It is in general conversation,
movies, advertisements, books, art, and even body language. We use it when we speak
and write, and being able to recognize such elements in reading will boost your own
analysis.
II.
The Big Five: Syntax; Diction; Imagery; Figurative Language; and Details
A.
B.
Syntax
1.
the set of rules in a language used to convey a complete thought
2.
helps to develop the tone, mood, and rhythm of a piece
a)
Simple or Declarative
b)
Formal vs. Informal
c)
Long or Convoluted
d)
Nontraditional
Diction
1.
the words used by the author
2.
it should be accurate and clear, given the writer’s purpose
3.
with syntax, develops tone, mood, connotation, characterization
a)
Formal vs. Informal
b)
Flowery vs. Direct
c)
Simple vs. Complex
C.
Details
1.
The details included within a piece of writing develop a writer’s tone, the
mood of a piece, and the overall theme and style.
2.
What is included? What is omitted? How are the details structured or
revealed?
D.
Imagery
1.
the use of figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in a
way that appeals to the senses
2.
E.
this allows the reader to better understand the story concepts
Figurative Language
1.
metaphors, similes, personification, onomatopoeia, allegories, symbols,
ironies, etc., that, through word or structure create a figure or illustrative
representation of something
2.
either makes a claim about something or reveals emotions and thoughts of
the author/characters
a)
these are both intended (author’s choice) and unintended
(subconscious choices that reveal author’s psyche)
III.
The Rhetorical Triangle
A.
Aristotle’s Elements: Speakers
1.
At the bottom left point of your triangle write the word “speaker”.
2.
Notes to add to the section:
a)
consider your own experiences, knowledge, and feelings to
determine your attitude towards a subject and your understanding of the
audience
b)
language, tone, style
B.
C.
Aristotle’s Elements: Subjects
1.
At the top of your triangle write the word “subject”.
2.
Notes to add to the section:
a)
evaluate what you know/need to know
b)
investigate perspectives
c)
determine needed evidence and proof
Aristotle’s Elements: Audience
1.
At the bottom right of your triangle write the word “audience”.
2.
Notes to add to the section:
a)
determine reader’s expectations, knowledge, attitude towards your
subject
b)
IV.
you consider this in assignment requirements
Context
A.
Inside your circle, write “context”.
B.
Add the following notes to this section:
1.
consider the circumstances or situation in which writing or speaking
occurs
2.
examine the way context can lead to a writer’s rhetorical choices
3.
“We can’t know what writers mean...but we have rhetoric to help us
interpret.” (Ann Berthoff)
V.
Aim, Intention, or Purpose
A.
On the edge of your circle write the word “Intention”.
B.
Notes to add to the section:
1.
the reason for a writer’s decisions
2.
effective writing analysis connects a writer’s purpose with a reader’s
understanding
3.
often found within the thesis statement then carried throughout an entire
piece
VI.
Aristotle’s Appeals: Pathos (Emotion)
A.
Considering readers’ emotions and interests
B.
Shaping appeal for audience
C.
Using personal stories and observations
D.
Using figurative language to create drama and emotional reactions
1.
E.
imagery, metaphors, similes, analogies, etc.
Pathos: What Not to Do
1.
Bandwagon
a)
2.
Flattery
a)
3.
if you adopt certain beliefs or values, you are cool
Veiled threats
a)
5.
sweet talk used to persuade
In-crowd
a)
4.
everyone else is doing it
adverse consequences will occur if prescribed action is not taken
False analogies
a)
assuming that if two things are true in some ways, they are similar
in other ways, without proof
6.
Weasel words
a)
misleading, meaningless words or phrases
VII.
Aristotle’s Appeals: Logos (Logic)
A.
Offering clear, thoughtful positions and support
B.
Developing ideas with appropriate details
C.
Using inductive and deductive reasoning
D.
Establishing cause and effect
E.
Providing examples, citing authority, using testimony
F.
Logos: What Not to Do
1.
Begging the question
a)
2.
statement based on something that hasn’t been proven
Post hoc fallacy
a)
assuming that one event caused another event when it could be
coincidence
3.
Non sequitur
a)
4.
linking two unrelated ideas together
Either-or
a)
Simplifying a complicated situation to suggest there are only two
outcomes
5.
Hasty generalization
a)
utilizing stereotypes in an argument by making sweeping
generalizations with little evidence
6.
Oversimplification
a)
7.
careless reasoning that is ignorant of all issues involved
Slippery slope
a)
assumption that one step will lead to a second, much more terrible,
step
8.
Straw man
a)
a diversionary fallacy that draws attention away from the argument
VIII.
Aristotle’s Appeals: Ethos (Credibility)
A.
Establishing common ground
B.
Demonstrating personal knowledge
C.
Providing credible support that is cited
D.
Demonstrating fairness
E.
Appealing to audience’s ethical or moral beliefs
F.
Ethos: What Not to Do
1.
Ad hominem
a)
character attack (insulting person or cause instead of addressing
argument or issue)
2.
Guilt by association
a)
attacking a person’s associates to make person appear guilty or
discredited (this is possible with ideas as well, by assuming an idea is
flawed based on the creator or other associated ideas)
IX.
Pork Rind example
A.
Logos: An appeal to logic.
1.
When a writer today employs logos, s/he might draw upon statistics,
credible sources, arguments premised on reason, and the inherent logic of a
situation. Consider this claim in a student paper about heart disease and pork-rind
consumption:
a)
The information about the risks of eating pork rinds comes from no
fewer than seven scientific studies published in respected journals. Each study
was reviewed by a panel of readers who did not know the authors. The
journals receive no outside funding except from their subscribers. Based on
these factors, one must conclude that unless other studies come forward, porkrind consumption poses health risks.
B.
Pathos: Appeals to emotion are common in non-academic writing but
tend to distort factual evidence.
1.
When you see someone reaching for the pork rinds in the supermarket, you
should slap it out of their hands and tell them the terrible story of these crunchy deathbags full of poison. Oh, consider the children who will grown up addicted to these vile
things, unless we all act now!
2.
Pathos-based appeals can play on fears or other emotions. Advertising has
elevated the use of pathos to a very fine art.
C.
Ethos: Can rely on reputation or experiences to prove a point.
Credibility is key to winning an audience's belief and support for one's
argument.
1.
Darleen Diggler of Greasy Bottom, VA, was the first to testify at the
Congressional hearing on pork rinds. Ms. Diggler, who had suffered four heart attacks,
needed assistance getting into the chair provided her by the Congressmen. As she
testified, "see what a pound of rinds a day will do to you! I've been eating them for
thirty years! Now it is too late." She broke down, sobbing, at this point. Ms. Diggler's
testimony was followed by Dr. I.M. Smarte, an award-winning cardiologist from the
Medical College of Virginia. Dr. Smarte presented evidence from his four decades of
practice, and he noted the high levels of saturated fat, trans-fat, and cholesterol found
in pork rinds and urged Congress to pass the legislation outlawing the snack.
2.
Both Ms. Diggler and Dr. Smarte use ethos to make their claims; Smarte also
employs logos (the claims about what the rinds contain). Diggler's plea could be
seen as employing pathos to sway the lawmakers.