Running Head: COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS
COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS OF THE
READING COMPREHENSION OF ADULT NON-NATIVE SPEAKERS OF
ENGLISH IN ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES COURSES
Ildiko Barsony
Florida International University
COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The Florida College System enrolls nearly half a million students, over half of
whom belong to some minority group (Florida Department of Education, Fact Book). At
Miami Dade College (MDC), the percentage of minority students is even higher. In Fall
2011, 71% of the student population was Hispanic, 18% Black non-Hispanic, and 8%
White non-Hispanic (MDC, Fact Book). Non-native speakers of English constitute 50%
of the student population.
Non-native students, who graduated from a non-English speaking high school,
took ESOL during their eleventh or twelfth grade years at any English speaking high
school, or earned a GED in Spanish must demonstrate proficiency in the English
language. Students may take the TOEFL test or COMPASS-ESL, a placement test
measuring their English language skills (MDC, Testing). If they do not demonstrate
academic proficiency in English, they are placed in the English for Academic Purposes
program. The program consists of reading, speech and listening, writing, and grammar
courses as well as mandatory writing and speech labs. Their placement test scores
determine which one of the six levels students may begin their studies. If a student starts
at level one, he or she will take two years to complete the program provided he or she
takes a full load of 14 credits each term, including the summer.
Upon finishing the EAP course sequence, students must take the Florida College
Entry-Level Placement Test (CPT) or the Postsecondary Education Readiness Test
(P.E.R.T.) if they intend to pursue their studies at MDC. In 2008-2, 555 level 6 EAP
students took the College Placement Test. Of the 401 EAP level 6 students who took all
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COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS
three subtests (reading, writing, and mathematics), 129 (32.2%) passed all three
subsections; thus, the majority (76.8%) needed further remediation in at least one area.
Exempt from further remediation were 49.5% of EAP students in reading, 60.2% in
writing, and 58.5% in mathematics. Of the seven level 5 students who attempted to take
the CPT test early in 2008-2, only two (28.6%) passed the reading portion. Of the nine
who took the writing portion, seven (77.8%) passed, and of the eleven who attempted the
mathematics portion, six (54.5%) passed (Rodriguez, 2010). Available data indicate a
similar pass rates consistently over the past terms: the percentage of EAP program
graduates who are exempt from further remediation in reading is around 50%, while the
percentage of students who are exempt from further remediation in writing is over 60%.
There is limited literature on the factors affecting second language (L2) reading
comprehension in a target language environment. Various factors that predict foreign
language achievement have been investigated over the years; however, Gardner et al.
(1997) stated that "there is a lack of research examining the relationships among all those
variables simultaneously" (p. 344).
[Gardner et al. (1997): multiple factors L2 acquisition]—university students
enrolled in introductory French in Canada
[Onwuegbuzie et al. (2000). Multiple factors L2 acquisition]—variety of foreign
language courses in the United States
[Jiang (2011): factors predicting ESL reading comprehension]—Chinese
university students enrolled in English courses in China
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COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS
Statement of the Problem
This study will investigate the cognitive, affective, and demographic factors that are
related to the reading comprehension of adult non-native speakers on English who are
enrolled in college English for Academic Purposes courses.
Assumptions of the Study
General Research Hypotheses
Significance of the Study
This study will make a contribution to one of the implementation goals of MDC3,
the Miami Dade College-specific Completion by Design initiative, which is to "[d]esign
an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and Developmental Education curriculum that
will serve as a more efficient "on ramp" to college-level programs of study" (MDC3
Newsletter).
Delimitations
Definitions and Operational Terms
Criterion Variable
Reading Comprehension. Reading comprehension is measured by students’
scores on the reading subtest of the Postsecondary Education Readiness Test (P.E.R.T.).
P.E.R.T. Placement is the Florida college placement test that determines students’ college
readiness in reading, writing, and mathematics. The modifier “Placement” is used to
differentiate this test from the P.E.R.T. Diagnostic, which is offered to students who test
below the college-level cut scores in any of the three areas to further narrow the skill
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COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS
areas in need of remediation. The P.E.R.T. Placement is a computer adaptive test
(C.A.T.) with 25 operational items that will be the basis of the student's placement score
and five (5) field test items which are designed to continuously enhance the operational
test bank. Currently, the scaled scores on the P.E.R.T. Placement range from 50-150. The
current course placement score ranges in reading are 50-83 for Lower Level
Developmental Education, 84-103 for Higher Level Developmental Education, and 104150 for Freshman Composition Skills I (ENC 1101) (Florida Department of Education,
n.d.).
Affective Predictor Variables
Language Anxiety. I will borrow the definition of Language Anxiety, or Foreign
Language Anxiety, from Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope (1986) to describe it as the situationspecific anxiety that is responsible for students’ negative emotional reactions to language
learning and measure it using the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FCLAS)
developed by these authors.
Foreign Language Reading Anxiety. I will use the Foreign Language Reading
Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) developed by Saito, Horwitz, & Garza (1999).
Perceived scholastic competence.
Perceived intellectual ability.
Test anxiety. According to Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986), “test anxiety
refers to a type of performance anxiety stemming from a fear of failure” (p. 127) and is
related to foreign language anxiety along with communication apprehension and fear of
negative evaluation.
Cognitive Predictor Variables
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COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS
Academic achievement. Academic achievement will be measured by students’
Grade Point Averages (GPA).
First language (L1) literacy. First language (L1) or native language literacy
refers to students’ reading and writing skills in their native language. It will be measured
by the number of years of formal education students have had in the native language.
English proficiency. English proficiency will be measured by the number of
years of formal education students have had in English either in the native country or in
the United States.
Years of prior education in home country.
Lg. of prior education in home country (native lg, English, other lg.)
Years of formal study of English (may be demographic).
Expectation of achievement in the course.
Knowledge of American culture.
Demographic Predictor Variables
Sex.
Age.
Semester course load.
Work load.
Use of English outside of school.
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COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS
Summary
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