Diction, Imagery, Tone,
Syntax
Order of complexity
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which ideas are presented
according to their relative
complexity; usually from most
complex to least.
Toulmin logic
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
to use argumentation as it occurs in
daily life; it divides argument into
the claim (thesis of an essay), the
grounds (support for a claim:
evidence or appeals), and the
warrant (inference that connects
claims to grounds).
Appeal to ignorance:
a
weak rhetorical strategy
and logical fallacy in which
the writer depends on the
lack of evidence for one side
to prove his or her position.
Ad hominem argument / attack:
a
weak rhetorical strategy
and logical fallacy that is a
personal attack on the
character or traits of one’s
opponents rather than the
opponent’s argument or
ideas.
Causal chain
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
used when writing in the rhetorical
mode cause and effect in which a
writer uses a sequence of events to
show how one causes another, and
how the second event in turn causes
a third, and so on.
Oxymoron
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which an author juxtaposes
apparently contradictory terms; a
rhetorical antithesis; from the Greek
pointedly foolish.
Subject-by-subject comparison
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a writer first discusses one
subject in full and follows it with a
comparable discussion of the entirety
of another subject; antonym of
point-by-point comparison.
Compound-Complex sentence
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which a writer employs two
independent clauses and one or
more subordinate/dependent
clauses.
Post hoc reasoning/post hoc,
ergo propter hoc:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy that occurs when a
writer falsely implies that
because one thing follows
another, the first caused the
second, mistaking sequence for
causation.
Begging the question:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy that occurs when
the evidence depends on the
believability of the claim. Often
called circular reasoning, It
assumes a statement to be selfevident even when it has not
been proven so.
Abstract language
a
diction-based rhetorical strategy
used to denote ideas and qualities
rather than observable, things,
people, or places. It is often
necessary to express ideas, but can
be vague unless it is supported by
the observable or physical, which is
usually described in concrete
language.
Homily
a
tonal rhetorical strategy that is
literally a sermon, but may include
any serious talk, speech, or lecture
involving moral or spiritual advice.
Metaphor
 an
imagery-based rhetorical strategy
that compares or implies comparison
between two seemingly dissimilar
things, often substituting one for the
other to suggest similarity
Straw man:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy that occurs when a
writer claims that because a
miniscule element of an
opponent’s argument is invalid,
the entire argument must be
invalid.
Figures of speech/figurative
language
a
primarily imagery-based rhetorical
strategy that uses imaginative
language to suggest a special
meaning or create a special effect
 Ex. apostrophe, metaphor,
personification, simile, etc.
Hasty/sweeping generalization:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy that is akin to
jumping to a conclusion because
the writer makes a conclusion
based on too little evidence.
Tu quoque:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy that assumes the
opponent’s argument has no
value because the opponent
does not follow his or her own
advice; from the Greek you also.
Sentence variety (syntax)

there are four major sentence structures: 1)
Simple: contains one independent clause (e.g.
The singer bowed to her adoring audience.); 2)
Compound: contains two independent clauses
joined by a coordinating conjunction or a
semicolon (e.g. The singer bowed to her adoring
audience, but she sang no encores.); 3)
Complex: contains one independent clause and
one or more subordinate or dependent clauses
(e.g. The singer bowed to her adoring audience,
but sang no encores.); 4) Compound-complex:
contains two or more independent clauses and
one or more subordinate or dependent clauses
(e.g. The singer bowed to her adoring audience
and ignored their pleas for an encore, but instead
she went to a party in her honor at a nearby
club.); strong writers ensure that they do not just
confine themselves to one.
Allusion
a
diction-based rhetorical strategy in
which a writer briefly refers to an
event, book, myth, place, or work of
art that the reader is expected to
recognize so the writer
can evoke a vivid impression.
Euphemism
a diction-based rhetorical strategy in
which an author replaces a more
agreeable or polite substitute for a
generally unpleasant concept; from
the Greek phrase for good speech.
Juxtaposition
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a writer places
elements,characters, scenes, or
objects side by side for the purposes
of comparison and contrast.
Anticlimax
an organizational rhetorical strategy in
which a writer suddenly drops from the
dignified or important in thought or
expression to the commonplace or trivial,
often for humorous effect; in fiction, it is
an effect produced when an author
deliberately subdues the action at an
expected highpoint to manipulate the
reader’s
 emotions.

Extended definition
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a writer develops the
meaning of a term over the course of
a paragraph-, essay-, or book-length
work.
Antithesis
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a writer includes a viewpoint
 opposite the one expressed in the
thesis.
Simile
 an
imagery-based rhetorical strategy
comparing two dissimilar things
using like or as; subdivision of
metaphor.
Evidence
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
employing facts and opinions used to
support a statement position or idea.
Facts include examples, reasons,
statistics, or other details. Opinions
include conclusions of experts or the
writer’s personal experiences. In
order to support claims, it must be
relevant, specific, adequate,
representative, and documented.
Objective description
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
that presents a detached, factual
picture in a plain, direct manner;
though pure objectivity is an
impossibility, writers of science
papers, technical reports, news
articles, and others strive for precise
language that is free of value
judgments; antonym of subjective
description.
Digression
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
(often weak) in which an author
provides a remark or series of
remarks that stray from the main
point; in narrative, a personal one
may be entertaining because of its
irrelevance, but in other modes, it is
likely to lead to incoherence,
distraction, and confusion.
Chronological/temporal order
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which ideas or events are
arranged by the time sequence of
their occurrence; frequently
employed in narrative and process
essays.
Inductive leap
 an
element of the organizational
strategy inductive reasoning that
ensures the conclusion is never
certain, only probable.
Ethos
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which the writer uses an ethical
appeal to
 capitalize off the speaker’s credibility
and evoke a moral response; excess
can lead to patronizing the reader
and sermonizing; used most
effectively in concert with logos and
pathos as part of the rhetorical
triangle.
Apostrophe
 an
imagery-based rhetorical strategy
(often poetic) that directly addresses
an absent or imaginary person, a
personified abstraction, or
sometimes an inanimate object to
create an effect of emotional
intensity or familiarity.
Deductive reasoning
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
that moves from a general premise
to a specific conclusion; antonym of
inductive reasoning.
Aphorism

a diction-based rhetorical strategy in
which a writer uses a terse statement of
known authorship that expresses a
general truth or moral principle (when the
authorship is unknown, the statement
is generally considered a folk proverb)
either to create a memorable summation
of a point or as a focusing device at the
beginning of an
essay.
Process explanation
 an
organizational strategy that
enables readers to understand a
process rather than perform it.
Point of view
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
a writer uses to determine from
whose perspective a story is told;
subdivided into first-, second-, and
third-person.
Example
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a writer provides a concrete,
specific, illustration of a general
point.
Pathos
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which the writer uses an emotional
appeal to evoke empathy or other
feeling; excess can lead to too
emotional a response; used most
effectively in concert with ethos and
logos as part of the rhetorical
triangle.
Flashback
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which action returns to an earlier
time in a narrative for making
something in the present clearer
Refutation
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
a writer uses to counter an opposing
argument by revealing its
weaknesses, including the three
most common: fallacies or logical
flaws, inadequate evidence, and
irrelevance; strengthens an
argument by showing a writer is
aware of the complexity of the issue
by considering opposing viewpoints.
Documentation
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which an author formally gives
credit to sources of borrowed words
or ideas; allows readers to evaluate
a writer’s sources and consult them if
they wish to determine the
argument’s credibility; most collegelevel humanities courses ask
students to employ these from the
Modern Language Association
Grounds
 an
element of the organizational
rhetorical strategy Toulmin logic that
a writer uses to support a claim; may
be evidence (facts or expert
opinions) or appeals (ethos, logos, or
pathos) to the emotions or values of
an audience.
First-person point-of-view
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which the narrator speaks from
his/her own perspective, in his/her
own voice, as a character in the
narrative, and using the pronouns
associated with I; it allows a closer
connection between narrator and
audience.
Logos
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which the writer uses a logical
appeal to evoke reason; excess can
lead to too cold or robotic a
response; used most effectively in
concert with ethos and pathos as
part of the rhetorical triangle.
Claim
 an
element of the organizational
rhetorical strategy Toulmin logic that
establishes the thesis of an essay;
usually it is stated directly, but it can
be implied.
Spatial order
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which ideas are presented
according to their location; can be
from left to right, front to back, near
to far, etc.
In medias res
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a writer begins a narrative
in the middle of the action; often
accompanied by flashback or
dialogue that explains what has gone
before; means in Greek into the
middle of things.
Stream of consciousness
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which an author attempts to
produce an unembellished flow of
thoughts in the human mind with its
feelings, judgments, associations,
and memories.
Order of importance
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which ideas are presented
according to their relative
significance; usually from most
meaningful to least.
Paradox
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a writer uses a term that
appears to be self-contradictory or
opposed to common sense, but upon
closer inspection contains an
acceptable and often profound
meaning; often used for emphasis or
to attract attention.
Third-person point-of-view
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which the narrator speaks from
the perspective of another, but the
character need not be an actor in the
narrative, and uses pronouns
associated with he, she and it
Inductive reasoning
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
that moves from specific evidence to
a general conclusion based on this
evidence; antonym of deductive
reasoning; principal form of
reasoning in science and history.
Transitions
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which words or expressions link
ideas in writing; words such as
however, therefore, and then, are
often used, but there can be entire
phrases, sentences, paragraphs, or
longer passages that can serve as
these links.
Thesis
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
that expresses an essay’s main idea;
the absence of such will lead an
essay to incoherence, disunity,
ambiguity, and ultimately failure; the
idea that all main points in the body
of an essay support; may be implied,
but is usually explicitly
Rogerian argument
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
advocated by psychologist Carl
Rogers, who rejected the adversarial
approach of most arguments;
instead of attacking the opposition,
Rogers suggests acknowledging the
validity of opposing positions and
finding areas of agreement to reduce
conflict and increase chances a final
position will satisfy all parties.
Warrant
 an
element of the organizational
rhetorical strategy Toulmin logic,
specifically the inference that
connects the claim to the grounds;
can be a belief taken for granted or
an assumption that underlies the
argument.
Epigraph
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
that employs a quotation or
aphorism at the beginning of a
literary work to suggest the work’s
theme.
Point-by-point comparison
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a writer first makes a point
about one subject and follows it with
a comparable point about another
subject; antonym of subject-bysubject comparison.
Rhetorical question
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
that is asked for effect, not to be
answered.
Subjective description
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
that contains value judgments or
language that is involved; focuses on
author’s reaction to events,
conveying not just a factual account
of details but also their significance;
may include poetic or colorful words
to impart an emotional response
Quotation
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a writer uses exact words
from a source enclosed in quotation
marks; should only be used to
present a particularly memorable
statement or to avoid a paraphrase
that would change original meaning;
DO NOT OVERUSE.
Antonym
a
diction-based rhetorical strategy in
which a writer chooses a word
opposite in meaning to another word
Premise
 an
element of the organizational
rhetorical strategy deductive
reasoning that is a statement of fact;
can be divided into major and minor
ones, where the minor one clarifies
the major one by being more
specific.
Second-person point-of-view
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which the narrator speaks to the
reader’s own perspective using the
pronouns associated with you; it
reads like an imperative from
narrator to audience; it is the least
common of the three points of view.
Onomatopoeia
 an
imagery-based rhetorical strategy
(often poetic) in which natural
sounds are imitated in the sounds of
the words representing them.
Metonymy
 an
imagery-based rhetorical strategy
in which one object is associated for
that of another closely associated
with it; from the Greek for changed
label or substitute name; (e.g.: when
a baseball player calls his bat an ax)
Topic sentence
 an
organizational rhetorical strategy
in which a sentence states the main
idea of a body paragraph; usually the
first sentence of a body paragraph;
they should open with a transition,
be concise, and express
directionality.
Anecdote
a
diction-based rhetorical strategy in
which a writer offers a brief
recounting of a relevant episode,
frequently personal or biographical
and often to inject humor into
writing.
Synonym
a
poorly applied diction-based
rhetorical strategy that is actually
unreal.
Some suggest it is a word with the
same basic meaning as another, but
no two words have identical
meanings.
Ambiguity
a
diction-based rhetorical strategy
that capitalizes on the multiple
meanings of a word, phrase,
sentence, or passage, implying that
several meanings could
potentially be correct.
Analogy
a
diction-based rhetorical strategy in
which a writer draws a similarity or
comparison between two different
things to show the relationship
between them, often designed to
explain an unfamiliar element by
comparing it to another that is more
familiar.
Cliché
a weak, diction-based rhetorical
strategy that is an overused
expression, which
should be avoided in writing.
Personification
 an
imagery-based rhetorical strategy
in which an author endows concepts,
animals, or inanimate objects with
human attributes to create a vivid
effect for the reader.
Humor
a
tonal rhetorical strategy that
creates the effect of comedy and is
intended to
make light of serious topics.
Epithet
 Using
an adjective (often habitually)
to characterize a person or thing.
Hyperbole
a diction-based rhetorical strategy in
which a writer deliberately
exaggerates or overstates for
emphasis or humorous effect
Synecdoche
 an
imagery-based rhetorical strategy
in which a part of something stands
for the whole
Invective
a
tonal rhetorical strategy in which a
writer produces an emotionally
violent verbal denunciation using
strong, abusive language.
Balanced sentence
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which both halves of the sentence
are about the same length and
importance.
Chiasmus
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which two opposite or contrasting
words, phrases, or clauses are
balanced in a sentence because the
ideas in the first clause are reversed
by those in the second.
Meiosis
a diction-based rhetorical strategy
that ironically minimizes a fact for
humor or emphasis
Complex sentence
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which a writer employs an
independent clause and one or more
subordinate/dependent clauses.
Extended metaphor
a diction-based rhetorical strategy in
which a comparison is developed at
length and occurring frequently
throughout a work.
Sexist language
a
diction-based rhetorical strategy
that stereotypes people according to
sex
Concrete language
a diction-based rhetorical strategy
used to denote objects or
qualities that the senses can
perceive.
Irony

a tonal rhetorical strategy to reflect a
discrepancy between two levels of
meaning and effect that reveals a contrast
between what is stated explicitly and what
is
really meant; can be verbal: when what is
stated is opposite its meaning, situational:
when there is a disconnect between an
expected outcome and an actual
occurrence,
and dramatic: when a reader understands
more in a story than the character
telling/living the story does.
Slang
a
diction-based rhetorical strategy
employing informal words that have
meanings that vary from locale to
locale or change as time passes
Sentence variety
there are four major sentence moods: 1)
Declarative: makes
 a statement (e.g. The king is sick.); 2)
Imperative: gives a command (e.g. Cure
the king.);
 3) Interrogative: asks a question (e.g. Is
the king sick?); 4) Exclamatory: expresses
strong
 emotion (e.g. The king is such a
hypochondriac!); strong writers do not
just confine
 themselves to one.

Inverted Syntax Order
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which normal word order is reversed
to achieve emphasis or a rhythmic
effect by placing the predicate before
the subject (often colloquially
referred to as Yodaspeak, but this
term is not suitable for A.P. essays);
antonym of natural syntax/order.
Periodic sentence
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which the main idea (independent
clause) follows introductory elements
such as words, phrases and
dependent clauses; antonym of loose
sentence.
Predicate adjective
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy that
is a type of subject complement that
places an adjective, group of
adjectives, or adjectival clause after
a linking verb to modify or describe a
subject.
Simple Sentence
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which a writer employs only one
independent clause.
Predicate nominative
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy that
is a type of subject complement that
renames a subject by placing a noun,
group of nouns, or noun clause after
a linking verb.
Compound sentence
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which a writer employs two
independent clauses joined by a
coordinating conjunction or
semicolon.
Symbol/symbolism
 an
imagery-based rhetorical strategy
in which a concrete person, event, or
object stands for something more
abstract than its literal meaning
Persona
a
tonal rhetorical strategy in which a
writer adopts a fictional voice to tell
a
story; often determined by the
intersection between purpose and
audience.
Assonance
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy
(often poetic) in which the writer
repeats a vowel sound within two or
more words in close proximity.
Argument from analogy/false
analogy:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and logical
fallacy in which a writer creates an
insufficient parallel between two
cases so the reader cannot, or
should not, accept the connection
between them; the writer falsely
assumes that because two ideas are
alike in several regards, they are
similar in all.
Jargon
a diction-based rhetorical strategy in
which a writer employs the
specialized
vocabulary of a profession or
academic field
Alliteration
A
syntactical rhetorical strategy
(often poetic) that repeats the initial
consonant sound in two or more
neighboring words. This effect can be
used to reinforce meaning, unify
ideas, and/or supply a musical
cadence to a writer’s work.
Colloquialism
a diction-based rhetorical strategy
that employs expressions generally
appropriate for conversation and
informal writing, but usually
unacceptable for formal
writing
Misleading statistics:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy that distorts data
to manipulate an audience.
Parable
a
tonal rhetorical strategy in which a
writer uses a brief story to convey a
lesson.
Equivocation:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy in which the writer
changes the meaning of a key
term during the course of a
single argument; makes it seem
as if a conclusion follows from
premises when it actually does
not.
Asyndeton
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which commas are used with no
conjunction to separate a series or
words, emphasizing the parts equally
and speeding up the flow of the
sentence.
Consonance
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy
(often poetic) in which a consonant
sound is repeated within two or more
words in close proximity.
Rhetorical fragments
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which a writer deliberately does not
include either a subject or verb in an
independent clause for a persuasive
purpose or desired effect
Repetition
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which a writer reuses words, sounds,
and/or ideas to create emphasis or
rhythm.
Parallelism/parallel
structure/parallel syntax

a syntactical rhetorical strategy that uses
similar grammatical elements within a
sentence or sentences to frame words,
phrases, sentences, or paragraphs and
highlight structural similarity; from Greek
roots meaning beside one another;
creates an effect of equal value of ideas,
coherence and unity, a speedier read and
smoother cadence for oratory; often
repeats a preposition or verbal phrase to
create the effect
Natural syntax order
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which the subject appears before the
predicate; antonym of inverted
syntax/order.
Loose/cumulative sentence
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which the main idea (independent
clause) is followed by dependent
phrases and clauses; antonym of
periodic sentence.
Caricature
a
tonal rhetorical strategy in which a
writer creates a grotesque likeness of
striking characteristics in a person or
thing.
Sarcasm
a
tonal rhetorical strategy that often
produces parody, satire, and humor
as
its effects by deliberately injecting
insincere, biting irony and caustic
language that is meant to hurt or
ridicule
Ad misericordium:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy that occurs when
writers appeal to readers’
emotions in an effort to distract
readers from using logic.
Either/or fallacy (false dilemma):
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy in which the writer
reduces an issue to polar
opposites and ignores possible
alternatives.
Polysyndeton
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy in
which multiple appearances of the
same conjunction, but no commas
are used to separate a series of
words, emphasizing the parts equally
and slowing the flow of the sentence
and making each item more
emphatic than asyndeton; takes the
form X and Y and Z, as opposed to
X,Y, and Z.
Non sequitur:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy that occurs when
the argument does not logically
follow a previous statement;
Greek for it does not follow.
Anaphora
a
syntactical rhetorical strategy that
is a subdivision of parallelism, using
repetition of the same word or group
of words in successive clauses.
Red herring:
a
weak rhetorical strategy and
logical fallacy that occurs when a
writer raises an irrelevant issue
to divert the audience’s attention
from the real one.