Teori-teori
Pembangunan
Sumber Manusia
Grid Penguruan Blake dan
Mouton
Sistem Likert
Teori Z Ouchi
Teori Argyris
Grid Pengurusan Blake dan
Mouton
Teori ini diperkenalkan pada 1964 bertujuan
menerangkan huraian gaya kepimpinan
pengurus untuk tujuan meningkatkan
kecekapan dan keberkesanan organisasi.
Pengurus yang efisyen:
1. Tumpu kepada pekerja (Teori Hubungan
Kemanusiaan)
2. Tumpu kepada produktiviti (Teori
Pengurusan Klasikal dan Saintifik)
Grid Pengurusan Blake dan
Mouton
Grid kepimpinan utk menerangkan gaya kepimpinan.
LIMA jenis gaya pengurusan:
1. Pengurusan Lemah (Impoverished Management)
2. Pengurusan Kelab Riadah (Country Club
Management)
3. Authority-Compliance
4. Pengurusan Pasukan (Team Management)
5. Pengurusan Pertengahan (Mid-of-the-Road
Management)
The New Managerial Grid
Insert Figure 2.2
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid
•Authority Compliance (9,1)
•Classical theory
•Country Club (1,9)
•Informal grapevine
•Impoverished (1,1)
•Laissez-faire
•Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
•Compromise (carrot & stick)
•Team (9,9)
•Human Resources Approach
•Promote the conditions that
integrate creativity, high
productivity, and high morale
through concerted team action
Likert’s System of
Management

Exploitive Autocratic

Benevolent Autocratic

Consultative

Participative Team
Perbezaan keempat-empat sistem ada dari aspek motivasi, komunikasi,
pembuatan keputusan, penyediaan maklumat, kawalan, struktur
pengaruh dan persepsi.
Kajian Likert mendapati kebanyakan organisasi mengamalkan sistem 4
( Pembabitan Organisasi/ Participative Team)
Ciri-ciri sistem 4:
1. Terdapat hubungan saling membantu ketua dan pekerja bawahan.
2. Proses pembuatan keputusan adalah secara kolektif.
3. Ahli organisasi juga merupakan ahli unit dalam organisasi.
4. Organisasi mempunyai matlamat pencapaian tinggi.
Teori Z Ouchi
Teori alternatif kepada Teori X dan Y dan teori ini adalah
berdasarkan corak pengurusan Jepun.
Teori Z lebih mengutamakan pembentukan dan
penyuburan sumber manusia dalam organisasi.
Teori Argyris
Menekankan peranan individu dalam organisasi.
Menyokong komunikasi terbuka dalam organisasi dan
penglibatan dlm membuat keputusan.
Implikasi Teori-teori Sumber Manusia terhadap Komunikasi
Kandungan
Komunikasi
Arah Komunikasi
Berkaitan tugas,
sosial dan inovasi
Pelbagai arah dan
antara kumpulan
Saluran Komunikasi Semua saluran
Gaya komunikasi
Formal dan tidak
formal
Kesimpulan
Pendekatan Sumber Manusia dalam pengurusan adalah
kesan kelemahan Teori Hubungan Kemanusiaan.
Prinsip-prinsip Sumber Manusia dapat dibentuk dalam
organisasi menerusi partisipasi, proses pembuatan
keputusan, daya inovasi. Ini jelas menerusi teori Grid
Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton, Sistem Likert 4, Teori Z
Ouchi dan Teori Argyris.
Terdapat sifat kepelbagaian dalam komunikasi dalam
organisasi sumber manusia.
Teori Sistem
Ludwig Von Bertalanffy
Merujuk kepada organisasi sebagai mempunyai TIGA komponen:
Susunan Hierarki (Hierarchical Ordering)
Pembentukan organisasi menyerupai satu sistem yang kompleks seperti sistem biologi
tubuh manusia. Di dalam sistem tersebut terdapat sub-sistem yang membantu proses
pengorganisasian.
Saling Bergantung dan Memerlukan (Interdependence)
Satu sistem yang besar memerlukan sub-sistem yang kecil untuk beroperasi.
Keterbukaan (Permeability)
Organisasidiandaikan sebagai organism hidup yang memerlukan elemen luar untuk
beroperasi. Elemen keterbukaan menyebabkan organisasi menerima inovasi luar.
Proses Sistem
Sistem diterjemahkan menerusi proses
input-throughput-output.
“inputs” adalah bahan atau maklumat
persekitaran luar yang masuk ke dalam
organisasi menerusi elemen
keterbukaan.
Menerusi proses transformasi aktiviti
“throughput” berlaku dan
menghasilkan “output”.
Sistem mentransformasikan output
kepada environment luar
e.g.
Kilang Perabut  perabut  public
Bahan
mentah
“input”
“throughput”
“output”
Ciri-ciri Sistem
Holistik -- Sistem diterangkan sebagai menyeluruh/
besar. Sesuatu sistem itu bersifat holistik kerana
setiap anggota sistem bergantung antara satu
dengan yang lain. Organisasi juga akan kukuh
apabila terdapat amalan berkerja bersama.
Equifinality -- Untuk mencapai sesuatu matlamat itu
banyak cara yang boleh dilakukan. Pelbagai cara
tersebut akan dilakukan untuk tujuan pencapaian
metlamat organisasi.
Entropi Negatif -- Kecenderungan sistem yang
mengamalkan dasar tertutup untuk mengalami
kemusnahan. Sistem yang mengamalkan dasar terbuka
mampu menghalang kemusnahan.
Kepelbagaian Keperluan -- Kepelbagaian kaedah untuk
mengawal pelbagai cabaran yang mungkin muncul
daripada persekitaran sistem.
Teori Sistem Sibernetiks -- dikembangkan oleh Norbert
Wiener 1948 – 1954. Fokus kepada penerangan bagaimana
satu sistem berupaya mencapai keseimbangan atau
homeostasis kerana kewujudan pelbagai komponen yang
saling berkait. Sistem Sibernertiks mementingkan tindak
balas dalam memastikan keupayaan untuk berfungsi.
Teori Maklumat -- Teori yang menekankan
kepentingan maklumat dalam organisasi.
Pertukaran maklumat merupakan keperluan
kepada organisasi.
Teori Budaya Organisasi
Fokus terhadap apakah itu organisasi? Apakah yang
dipunyai oleh organisasi.
Empat komponen budaya kukuh:
1. Nilai
2. Wira (Heroes)
3. Upacara dan Amalan (Rituals)
4. Jaringan Budaya
Budaya Organisasi adalah kompleks
Budaya organisasi diterjemahkan menerusi upacara,
peraturan komunikasi, “cerita”, kepercayaan, simbol.
Kemunculan Budaya Organisasi adalah hasil interaksi ahli
dalam organisasi. Walau bagaimanapun tidak wujud satu
Budaya Organisasi yang unggul.
Budaya organisasi mempunyai kesan terhadap
bentuk dan struktur organisasi. Menerusi kajian
berbentuk deskriptif pengkaji akan dapat memahami
budaya organisasi dan mengenali organisasi tersebut.
Budaya penting terhadap mengarahkan kejayaan
organisasi.
Apakah dengan melihat bangunan
tersebut anda dapat memahami budaya
organisasi tersebut?
Kajian-kajian
Hawthorne
Kajian oleh Elton Mayo
terhadap Motivasi Pekerja
dan Produktiviti Kerja
KAJIAN HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
24
Definisi Kajian
Hawthorne
 Satu
siri kajian mengenalpasti
output pekerja hasil daripada
layanan yang baik oleh
pengurus.
 Mengambil sempena nama
kilang Western Electric Company
di Hawthorne, Illinois.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
25
“
Kajian Hawthorne dijalankan
pada 1927-1933 di Western
Electric Hawthorne Works,
Chicago, dan Harvard Business
School Professor Elton Mayo dari
Sekolah Perniagaan Harvard
mengenalpasti produktiviti dan
persekiataran kerja.”
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
26
Latar belakang kajian
 Tujuan
kajian adalah untuk
mengenalpasti kesan daripada
keletihan dan perlaksaan tugas
yang sama setiap hari terhadap
produktiviti dan cara mengawal
mereka menerusi pembolehubah
rehat, kerja lebih masa, suhu dan
kelembapan.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
27
“Mayo
ingin mengenalpasti
kesan daripada keletihan dan
melakukan kerja yang sama
terhadap produktiviti dan
bagaimana mengawal
pembolehubah seperti waktu
rehat, jumlah jam bekerja, suhu
dan kelembapan.”
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
28
Eksperimen Mayo

Enam wanita yang memasang geganti telefon.

Membuat perubahan keadaan kerja yang kerap
dengan peretujuan mereka.

Jumlah geganti yang dibuat, suhu dan kelembapan
bilik, sejarah peribadi serta sejarah perubatan, tabiat
makan dan tidur, perbualan ketika bekerja.

Tiada penyelia untuk pekerja tersebut.
Mereka disuruh untuk bekerja mengikut kehendak
KAJIAN
mereka dan keselesaan mereka.

HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
29
Keadaan Biasa
Pada
keadaan biasa,
waktu kerja adalah 48
jam termasuk hari
sabtu. Tiada waktu
berhenti rehat.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
30
Eksperimen Satu
 Pekerja
diarahkan membuat satu kerja
untuk lapan minggu.
 Output produktiviti meningkat.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
31
Eksperimen Dua
 Pekerja
diberikan dua waktu rehat,
setiap satu selama lima minit iaitu waktu
pagi dan petang untuk jangka masa
lima minggu.
 Output meningkat.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
32
Eksperimen Tiga
Waktu
rehat ditambah
kepada 10 minit setiap kali
rehat.
Output meningkat
mendadak.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
33
Eksperimen Empat
 Pekerja
diberkan rehat sejumlah 6 kali
dan setiap kali selama lima minit.
 Output jatuh sedikit.
 Pekerja merungut kerana kekerapan
berhenti mengganggu konsentrasi
mereka.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
34
Eksperimen Lima
 Waktu
rehat seperti waktu asal
diberikan dan pekerja dijamu sup
panas.
 Output meningkat.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
35
Eksperimen Enam
 Pekerja
dibenarkan pulan jam 4:30
p.m. dan bukan 5:00 p.m.
 Output meningkat.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
36
Eksperimen Tujuh
 Pekerja
dibenarkan pulang jam 4:00
p.m.
 Output di tahap yang sama.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
37
Eksperimen Lapan
 Semua
perubahan ditarik balik dan
pekerja kembali kepada keadaan asal.
 Output yang tertinggi dicatatkan.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
38
Rumusan Kajian
Kajian ini membuktikan hubungan
antara perseorangan dan antara
kumpulan adalah penting dalam
menentukan kecekapan dan
keberkesanan pekerja berbanding
persekitaran kerja.
KAJIAN
HAWTHORNE
Dr. Hasan
39
Motivation and Hygiene
Factors
Frederick Herzberg
(1923 – 2000)
Herzberg’s MotivationHygiene Theory
Focuses
on outcomes that lead to
higher motivation and job satisfaction,
and those outcomes that can prevent
dissatisfaction.
 Motivator
needs relate to the nature of the
work itself—autonomy, responsibility,
interesting work.
 Hygiene needs are related to the physical
and psychological context of the work—
comfortable work environment, pay, job
security.
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

Herzberg:


Job context is source of dissatisfaction
 Problems with hygiene factors (e.g., pay,
working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction;
lack of problems means lack of
dissatisfaction
Job content is the source of job satisfaction
 Motivator factors (e.g., achievement,
responsibility) link with job performance; if
high, satisfaction high and performance
strong
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)


Validity unconfirmed – not replicated
using different methods
Still does not explain individual
differences, professional or cultural
differences
Motivators and Hygiene Factors

Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely
separate dimensions contribute to an
employee’s behavior at work—hygiene
factors and motivators.


Hygiene factors are elements such as working
conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal
relationships
Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include
achievement, recognition, responsibility and
opportunity for growth
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
Motivators satisfy subordinates–-the things
which encourage them to attend work,
comply to group or team goals, and produce.
 They often are linked to performance.
Positive recognition by a superior and among
peers during a formal meeting is an example
of this.

Motivators and Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being
dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates regardless
of performance.



Timely and thorough completion of and counseling on
fitness evaluations are an example of a hygiene factor.
The act is expected. When it does not happen subordinates
become dissatisfied and may come to believe that superiors
are not taking care of them.
Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers (hygiene
factors) lie on completely different scales and must
be considered independently.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

KITA versus “true” motivation

Short-term movement versus long-term motivation
Job enrichment is an attempt to instill
an internal generator in the employee
 Studies of Herzberg’s theory have included
employees working in a variety of industries
and jobs


Accountants, engineers, nurses, military officers,
and others
Hygiene Factors
 Work
environment & target basic needs
 Range from dissatisfaction to no
dissatisfaction
The presence of hygiene cannot lead to
satisfaction or high levels of motivation
 Perception that hygiene is an entitlement

Hygiene Factors (cont)
 Salary

Can it ever be enough?
 Benefits

Health care costs, premium sharing
 Company
policy & administration
 Work conditions

Office space, equipment, etc.
Motivator Factors
 Motivators
Tap needs for psychological growth
 Job content: The work itself
 Lead to high levels of employee motivation
and satisfaction

Motivator Factors (cont)
 Examples
Recognition
 Responsibility
 Achievement
 Growth and learning

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Motivator Factors
Hygiene Factors
(higher order needs)
(lower order needs)
• Career Advancement
• Salary
• Company policies
• Working conditions
• Benefits
• Job security
High
Job Dissatisfaction
Prentice Hall, 2001
• Personal growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
0
Job Satisfaction
Chapter 6
High
55
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or
pain
maintenance factor
 contributes to employee’s feeling not
dissatisfied
 contributes to absence of complaints

Motivation Factor - work condition related
to the satisfaction of the need for
psychological growth
job enrichment
 leads to superior performance & effort

Motivation–Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
• Company policy &
administration
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions
• Salary
• Status
• Security
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction
Motivation factors increase
job satisfaction
•
•
•
•
•
•
Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
• Salary?
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
Motivation-Hygiene
Combinations
High M
Low M
high motivation
low motivation
High H
few complaints
few complaints
high motivation
low motivation
Low H
many complaints many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction = how positively or
negatively individuals feel about their
jobs
 Observable informally through
observation and interpretation of
behaviour and words
 Measured formally in questionnaires
E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
 E.g., Job Descriptive Index

Effects of Job Satisfaction

Link to absenteeism


Link to turnover


Satisfied have lower absenteeism
Dissatisfied more likely to quit
Link to performance complex



Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual
performance
Successful performance does seem to lead to
greater satisfaction
Proper allocation of rewards can increase both
performance and satisfaction
Summary
 Hygiene
factors (dissatisfiers) are
working conditions, pay, policies,
interpersonal relationships
 Motivators (satisfiers) fulfill highlevel needs and include
recognition, responsibility and
opportunity for growth
Theory X/Y
 Douglas
MacGregor, 1960
 Interaction between supervisors and
subordinates
 Organization’s management approach
is determined by supervisors’ attitudes
and belief about subordinates
 Beginning of human relations
movement
Theory X

Role of Management



Management responsible
for organizing elements of
productive enterprise
People need to be
controlled and directed
People would be passive
otherwise

Human Nature





man works as little as
possible
lacks ambition, dislikes
responsibility, prefers to be
led
inherently self-centered
naturally resistant to
change
gullible, not very bright
Theory Y

Role of Management


Management responsible
for organizing elements of
productive enterprise
Task of management is to
arrange organizational
conditions so that people
can achieve their own
goals best by directing their
own efforts toward
organizational objectives

Human Nature


People are not naturally
passive, they have become
so as a result of experience
in organizations
Motivation and capacity for
assuming responsibility is
inherent in people
Having Little Ambition
Theory X
Managers See Workers As…
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y
Managers See Workers As…
Enjoying Work
Accepting Responsibility
Prentice Hall, 2001
65
Theory X and Theory Y
(Douglas McGregor)
Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees like
work, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to
a goal.
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory
Y

Theory X


Management view that assumes workers
generally dislike work and must be forced to do
their jobs
Theory Y

Management view that assumes workers like to
work and under proper conditions, employees will
seek responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and
self-actualization needs
Theory Z
A
management philosophy that stresses
employee participation in all aspects of
company decision making
Theory X/Y
 Douglas
MacGregor, 1960
 Interaction between supervisors and
subordinates
 Organization’s management approach
is determined by supervisors’ attitudes
and belief about subordinates
 Beginning of human relations
movement
Theory X

Role of Management



Management responsible
for organizing elements
of productive enterprise
People need to be
controlled and directed
People would be passive
otherwise

Human Nature





man works as little as
possible
lacks ambition, dislikes
responsibility, prefers to
be led
inherently self-centered
naturally resistant to
change
gullible, not very bright
Theory Y

Role of Management


Management responsible
for organizing elements
of productive enterprise
Task of management is
to arrange organizational
conditions so that people
can achieve their own
goals best by directing
their own efforts toward
organizational objectives

Human Nature


People are not naturally
passive, they have
become so as a result of
experience in
organizations
Motivation and capacity
for assuming
responsibility is inherent
in people
Having Little Ambition
Theory X
Managers See Workers As…
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y
Enjoying Work
Managers See Workers As…
Accepting Responsibility
Prentice Hall, 2001
72
Theory X and Theory Y
(Douglas McGregor)
Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees like
work, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to
a goal.
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory
Y

Theory X


Management view that assumes workers
generally dislike work and must be forced to do
their jobs
Theory Y

Management view that assumes workers like to
work and under proper conditions, employees will
seek responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and
self-actualization needs
Theory Z
A
management philosophy that stresses
employee participation in all aspects of
company decision making
Comparison of American,
Japanese, and Theory Z
Management Styles
Variations on Theory Z
 Quality
circles
 Participative management
 Employee involvement
 Self-directed work teams
Did You Know?
Theory Z lets employees feel organizational
ownership, which may produce positive attitudinal
and behavioral effects for employees.
Maslow’s Theory
“We each have a hierarchy of needs that
ranges from "lower" to "higher." As lower
needs are fulfilled there is a tendency for
other, higher needs to emerge.”
Daniels, 2004
Maslow’s Theory
Maslow’s theory maintains that a person
does not feel a higher need until the needs
of the current level have been satisfied.
Maslow's basic needs are as follows:
Basic Human Needs
 Food
 Air
 Water
 Clothin
g
Physiological Needs
 Sex
Safety and Security
Safety Needs

Protection

Stability

Pain Avoidance

Routine/Order
Love and Belonging
Social Needs

Affection

Acceptance

Inclusion
Esteem
Esteem Needs

Self-Respect

Self-Esteem

Respected by Others
Self-Actualization


Achieve full potential
Fulfillment
Summary
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belonging
Safety
Physiological
Organizational Information Theory
Managing large amounts of information is one of the leading
challenges for organizations. As new means of communication
increase, the amount of messages we send and receive, and the
speed of those messages increase.
"Karl Weick developed an approach to describe the process by
which organizations collect, manage, and use the information
that they recieve" (West and Turner, p. 243).
Organizational Information Theory
In developing his approach, Weick focuses on the process
rather than the structure. Here, his focus was on the exchange
of information that takes place within organizations and how
individuals within the oganization take steps to understand the
material.
"The focus of Organizational Information Theory is on the
communication of information that is vital in determining the
success of an organization" (West and Turner, p. 244).
Karl E. Weick is the Rensis Likert Collegiate Professor of
Organizational Behavior and Psychology Professor of
Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management
Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan. His
PhD is from Ohio State University in Social and
Organizational Psychology.
Dr. Weick's Book The Social Psychology of
Organizing, first published in 1969 and revised
in 1979, was declared one of the nine best
business books ever written by Inc Magazine
in December of 1996.
The organizing formulation has more recently
been expanded into a book titled Sensemaking
in Organizations.
Dr. Weick's research interests include collective
sensemaking under pressure, medical errors, hand-offs in
extreme events, high reliability performance, improvisation,
and continuous change.
Dr. Weicks graduate level teaching focuses on the social
psychology of organizing, micro foundations of organization
studies, the craft of scholarship, and his executive
education teaching focuses on the management of
uncertainty through sensemaking and improvisation.
depended on computers were in a state of panic when they learned that their
computers might not be compatible in the new millenium. NowBank was one
of these companies. An associate named Dominique Martin was to head up
operations for a Y2K conversion.
However, the company had branches in Denver, Dallas, and also Phoenix. By
way of videoconferencing, all teams would meet to discuss each branch's
responsibilities. Upon meeting, many different areas of management began to
arise.
Areas such as providing updates, maintaining communication between all
branches, and keeping their own division running made the operation
stressful. As concerns began to escalate, Dominique realized that effective
communication would be key to the success of the project.
To manage all of the concerns, problems, and communication issues the
team implemented aspects of Organizational Information Theory. With
communication as the highest priority, NowBank was successful in their
Influences on O.I.T. In Weick's first book The Social Psychology of Organizing, he presents
"his theoretical approach explaining how organizations make sense of
and use information".
Weick states, "Organizations and their environments change so rapidly
that it is unrealistic to show what they are like now, because that's not
the way they are going to be later".
However, Weick realized that complete knowledge could not come from
one source. There must be other influences on communication and also
relationships among individuals. Two other theories were explored.
General System Theory
General System Theory in developing his approach to examine how organizations
manage their information. In order to make neccessary adjustments to reach a
common goal, an organization must depend on combined information.
Bertalanffy notes, "While in the past, science tried to explain observable phenomena
by reducing them to an interplay of elementary units investigatable independantly of
each other, conceptions appear in contemporary science that are concerned with
what is somewhat vaguely termed "wholeness," i.e., problems of organizations.
General System Theory, therefore, is the general science of "wholeness" (Bertalanffy,
pp. 36 - 37).
Ludwig von Bertalanffy's
General Assumptions One way to explain the way in which organizations make sense out of
information that may be ambiguous or confusing is Organizational
Information Theory. This theory focuses "on the process of organizing
members of an organization to manage information rather than on the
structure of the organization itself". There are assumptions beneath
Weick's Organizational Information Theory:
Human Organizations engage in information processing to reduce
equivocality of information
The information an organization receives differs in terms of
equivocality
Human organizations exist in an information environment
General Concepts Organizational Information Theory does include a
significant number of concepts that are crucial to fully
understand this theory.
They are: information environment, information
equivocality, and cycles of communication. Here is a
brief explanation of each one:
Information Environment "Information environment is a core concept in
understanding how organizations are formed
as well as how they process information.
Everyday, we are faced with thousands of
stimuli that we could potentially process and
interpret. The availability of all stimuli is
considered to be the information
environment.
Information Equivocality "Organizations receive information from multiple
sources; They must decode the information and
determine whether it is comprehensible, which
person or department is most qualified to deal with
the information, and whether multiple departments
require this information to accomplish their tasks.
Without clarity in these areas, there is information
equivocality"
Cycles of Communication -
There are three steps to the cycle of communication. The three steps
consist of act, response, and adjustment.
The act "refers to the communication behaviors used to indicate one's
ambiguity as a result of information that is received. The reaction to the act
indicating equivocality of information defines the concept of response.
A response of clarifying information is provided as a result of the act. As a
result of the response, the organization formulates a response in return as
a result of any adjustment that has been made to the information that was
originally received.
An adjustment is made to indicate that the information is now understood"
Critique –
Organizational Information Theory plays a very prevalent role in
organizational communication.
Communication is critical to our personal lives, our social lives,
and also our professional lives.
This theory has no limitations within organizational
communication. It addresses aspects of the individual and also
the group within the organization. Organizational Information
Theory is a valuable theory to study and also practice.