Erik Erikson: Came up with a Cognitive Development Stage Theory. Each stage is precipitated by a crisis
in one’s life. To move forward, one must resolve this crisis.
Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Imitative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity
vs. Identity Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generality vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair
Lawrence Kohlberg: Lawrence Kohlberg studied the differences in a child's reasoning in regards to
moral dilemmas. Kohlberg hypothesized that it was the moral difficulties experienced by children that
motivated their development. This progressed through a fixed sequence of increasingly flexible types of
moral reasoning. Kohlberg believed that there were six specific stages of development which could be
more generally classified into three different levels (the first two are relevant to adolescent
development and are covered).
Pre-conventional Morality (Birth - 9 years)
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Stage 1: The Stage of Punishment and Obedience - One acts morally right to avoid pain and
punishment. It is the physical outcomes of their actions that determines the positive or
negative of their actions. People of superior power such as parents, elder siblings or teachers
should be obeyed. Punishment is to be avoided by staying out of trouble.
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Stage 2: The Stage of Individual Instrumental Purpose and Exchange – One acts morally correct
to gain a reward. Actions performed by the child are deemed right if they satisfy the child's
needs, desires, or involve an even exchange. Obedience to the rules should bring some form of
benefit to the child in return.
Conventional Level (9 - 20 years old)
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Stage 3: The Stage of Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships and Conformity – One
acts morally correct to gain social approval. Behaviour is governed by the likelihood of the
action being pleasing or impressive to others. Consideration of other peoples feelings, loyalties
and trust play an important role in this stage.
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Stage 4: The Stage of Social System and Conscience Maintenance – One acts morally correct to
adhere to the law. Understanding of the need for fixed rules and laws in an attempt to
maintain the social order. Respect for authority figures and other members of society become
important and relevant to a child in this stage.
Post-conventional Level (20 years and over)
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Stage 5: The Stage of Prior Rights and Social Contract or Utility. At this stage a person acts
morally good for the well being of others.
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Stage 6: The Stage of Universal Ethical Principles. At this stage, one has a self-formulated set of
morals and values that reflect universal moral values like justice, truth, human dignity, etc.
Definitions
Capitalism: An economic system based on private or corporate ownership and control of resources and
means of production and distribution.
Commodity: Something that carries an economic value within the marketplace; something that can be
bought, sold, and traded.
Consumerism: A view which attributes meaningfulness to life through one’s capacity and ability to
purchase and consume goods.
Democracy: Government by the will of all the people, represented through free elected representation.
Individualism: A view which favours the free action of individuals within society.
Instrumental reason: focus is placed on the most efficient or cost-effective means to achieve a specific
end. Instrumental reason tends to focus on the 'hows' of an action, rather than its 'whys'.
Liberalism: A philosophy based on the goodness of the human being, autonomy of the individual, and
standing for the protection of economic, political, and civil rights and freedoms.
Market: Where buyers and sellers meet to exchange, sell, trade, goods.
Private property: Something that is owned for one’s exclusive use, or for one’s exclusive control.
Relativism: A doctrine that nothing is absolute, but is conditioned by relation to another.
Social contract: A term used by philosophers to describe the tacit agreement of individuals to live in
community.
Utilitarianism: A philosophy or view that measures the value of all things according to the principal of
usefulness.
Thomas Hobbes
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Developed his political theory on the backdrop of the barbarous civil wars and the endless
struggles in parliament.
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He says that humans can never let down their guard, because they are in constant struggle with
others for power.
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The basis of society is a tacit contract where individuals give up some of their appetite for power
in exchange for the security of using their powers without fear of extreme violence
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One accepts the obligation to obey a ruler in order to safeguard one’s freedom. It is freedom
based on self-interest.
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a human being is so like a beast, a leviathan, that is set in motion by selfish desires and
appetites. Every human being is moved by these appetites to seek out the good which best
serves his/her own self-interests. Each person is therefore is constant struggle with the passions
of another. Therefore, it is society that tempers and tames our leviathan.
John Locke
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his theory of civil government begins with the protection of property
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this includes a person’s life, liberty and estate
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individuals have the capacity to reason and therefore have the responsibility to enforce natural
law
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when reason is ignored, human behaviour results in conflict.
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the earth and all its riches belong to all people, they have equal right to it as long as they respect
each other’s physical presence and activities
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this theory will work as long as there is enough for everyone and everyone is willing to work
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the theory becomes more complex with the introduction of money and wealth - currency
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government institutions are established when we give them our power to work on our behalf to
enforce fixed rules for conduct, or laws which will protect private property
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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“Man is born free and he is everywhere in chains.”
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Wrote the Social Contract – Discusses why if by nature, one is born free and is autonomous,
why do individuals give up that freedom to join a society which ultimately limits my liberty.
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Contrary to Hobbes – maintained that human beings are good in nature and inclined towards
compassion for one another. Society corrupts the noble savage.
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However, within society, this natural goodness degenerates into competition of wills with one’s
fellow man. This competition could threaten the individual’s survival and freedom.
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By entering into a “social contract,” individuals preserve themselves and remain free by
submitting to the general will of the people. Therefore, while living in a society, one’s rights
might be less than in a state of nature, they are still protected and individuals are still sovereign
because each individual lives under the same laws and are given and denied the same freedoms.
Jeremy Bentham
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Utilitarianism is a philosophy or worldview made popular by Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832)
that measures the value of all things according to the principles of usefulness-that which
provides for the greatest pleasure or well being for the greatest number.
John Stuart Mill

Unlike Bentham’s greatest happiness principle, John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873) distinguished
happiness from contentment arguing that intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to more
physical forms of pleasure.
John Rawls
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wanted to provide an alternative to utilitarianism
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his theory starts with the individual and the individual’s freedom
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suggests that two principles of justice govern society:
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Each person would have an extensive system of rights and freedoms which would be accorded
equally to everyone: freedom of speech, conscience, peaceful assembly, etc. However, various
basic rights may be traded off against each other for the sake of obtaining the largest possible
system of rights (i.e. criminal record checks for teachers)
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This principle is absolute, and my never be violated, even for the sake of the second principle
below.
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Economic and social inequalities are justified only if they benefit all of society, especially its
most disadvantaged members (i.e. physician and assembly line worker)
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the rights and freedoms of the individual supersede whatever notion of common good may be
discerned by society, and must be protected