Principles of Behavior
Modification (PSY333)
Note Set 4
Gary L. Cates, Ph.D., N.C.S.P
Maintenance
• Continuing performance after it was first
established
• Behavior Trap: Built in reinforcers take
control of artificially delivered reinforcers
• Perpetual Performance Contracting does
not exist
Generalization Part 1
Stimulus Generalization
– When behavior becomes more probable in
presence of one stimulus or situation as a
result of having been reinforced in the
presence of another stimulus.
e. g. Using your money at McDonalds is
very similar as using your money at
Wendy’s
How to get generalization to occur
E.g. mathematics: Balancing checkbook
• Train in the target situation: Balance Checkbook in store
• Vary Training Conditions: Extraneous stimuli present
• Program Common Stimuli: the checkbook itself
(common learning materials).
• Train sufficient stimulus exemplars: several different
stores, items, costs etc.
Your turn
• Each of you write down an example of
stimulus generalization that has occurred
with you.
Generalization Part 2
Response Generalization
• Behavior becomes more probable in the
presence of a stimulus as a
• result of another behavior that was reinforced in
the presences of that stimulus√ Do not confuse
with stimulus generalization
e.g. Behavioral Momentum: Compliance high p
e.g. Computer vs. worksheet vs. flashcards
How to get response generalization
to occur
• Train sufficient response exemplars:
e.g. Plurals
• Vary the acceptable responses during
training:
– Only reinforce less probable responses
• √ Make use of rules to speed it up
Your turn
• Each of you write down an example of
how response generalization has occurred
with your behavior.
Rules
• Nothing more than SD’s and Sw’s
– Cues that certain behaviors will pay off or
punish
Contingency Shaped Behavior
• Behavior mediated by direct acting
contingencies in the environment
• Immediate consequences
• Trial and learning often associated with
contingency shaped behavior
√ This is what most people believe
behavioral people are interested in
Rule-Governed Behavior
• Behavior controlled by the statement of a
rule
• Don’t touch that hot pan or you will get
burned (SW)
• Use our credit card and you will earn
money/points back (SD)
Why we have difficulty following
rules
1. Contact with rules is too small
2. Consequences are usually cumulative
(not immediate)
3. Contact with rules is too improbable.
4. Rule description is too vague
5. Deadlines are not effectively established
Procrastination: Example of Rule
following
• Putting off until tomorrow what you
could/should do today.
• Supplement hard rules with easy rules
• induce the establishing operation daily
(e.g. anxiety) with a deadline with a
sizeable outcome that is less-cumulative
(i.e., more immediate).
Theory of Rule Governed Behavior
• Both direct and indirect acting
contingencies in place. The rule is an
indirect acting contingency that serves to
induce an aversive establishing operation
(Anxiety, fear etc). To escape such direct
contingency we engage in the behavior
maintained by earlier learning of how to
escape aversive contingencies.
Three contingency model of
performance management
• Ineffective natural contingency: (rule that
does not produce strong responses)
• If you study daily you will get a good grade
– Behavior: You study daily
– Consequences: You get a good grade
Three contingency model of
performance management
• Indirect-Acting Contingency (the rule itself)
• If you do not study daily you loose five
dollars
– Behavior: You study Daily
– Consequence: You get a good grade and do
not loose five dollars
Three contingency model of
performance management
• Direct-Acting Contingency (the feeling
associated with the rule)
• You have anxiety about loosing five dollars
– You study daily
– You do not loose five dollars and you get a
good grade and
– you escape the anxiety
When are rules helpful?
– When you want rapid Behavior change
– When consequences are too delayed
– When you want to maintain behavior for which
natural reinforcers are highly intermittent
– To guard against immediate severe
punishment
Setting Goals
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Be specific
Include mastery criteria (development of skills)
Identify circumstances
Realistic and challenging
Public better than private
Set deadline
Goal setting plus feedback better than goal setting
alone
Must be a commitment to goal (i.e. no one changes
unless they want to change).
Break long term goals into several shorter goals (Task
analysis)
Monitor progress continuously
Writing Goals
• I’m going to do more exercise.
• I’m going to do two more exercises when I
work out.
• I’m going to include sit-ups and push-ups
during my work-out routine.
• I’m going to include 3 sets of 20 sit-ups
and 3 sets of 20 push-ups during my workout routine three times per week.
Token Economies
Token: A conditioned reinforcer that can be
turned in for backup reinforcers
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Can be given immediately
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Makes group administration of
reinforcers easier
How to set up a token economy
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Take baseline data on the target
responses
Select backup reinforcers and how to
distribute them
Select token type: Checks, stars, bucks,
stamps etc.
– Not easily counterfeited!
How to implement a token
economy
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Keep data: Must construct data sheets
Consistency in delivery: Specific agent
for specific behavior
Number/Frequency of R+: Continuous at
first and fade to some intermittent
schedule.
managing backup reinforcers: How
often?
How to implement a token
economy
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Possible punishment contingencies?
Supervision of staff: Treatment integrity
Handling problems: Anticipation is the
best approach
Make a manual or rule booklet
The most important things to
remember
• Wean individuals from the token economy:
Value, or frequency
• Transfer from token to social
reinforcement
• Gradually transfer control to client to selfreinforce/monitor
Self-Control
Causes of Self-Control
Problems of Behavioral Excesses
• Immediate reinforcers versus delayed
punishers for a behavior
• Immediate Reinforcers Versus
Cumulatively significant punishers for a
behavior
Causes of Self Control
Problems of behavioral deficiencies
1. Immediate small punishers for a behavior
versus reinforcers that are cumulatively
significant
2. Immediate small punishers for a behavior
versus immediate but highly improbable major
punisher if the behavior does not occur
3. Immediate small punisher for a behavior
versus delayed major punisher if the behavior
does not occur.
Small Group Activity
• What appears to be the problem with
people:
– Wearing helmets on bikes
– Quitting smoking
– Not overeating
– Not exercising enough
A Model for Self-Control
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Specify problem behavior
Set Goals
Make a commitment to change
Take data
Analyze causes
Design and implement program
Prevent Relapses and make your gains
last
Small group activity
• What can you do to help people:
– Not overeat
– Quit smoking
– Wear bike helmets
– Exercise more frequently
Causes of relapse
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Avoidable setback situations
Unavoidable setback situations
Overreaction to occasional setbacks
Counterproductive self-talk
Fuzzy Target Behavior
Long-term target behavior
Trying too much too soon
Failure to incorporate everyday rewards into
your program
• Failure to plan follow-up checks
Considering relapse
• How would you now modify your treatment
protocol for self help programs in:
– Exercising
– Overeating
– Smoking
– Wearing bike helmets
A Behavioral Contract
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Ensures agreement by all parties
Provides method of monitoring goal
attainment and progress
Provides good estimate of what is
involved with the program
Provides outlet for conditioned
commitment (signing contract)
Components of Behavioral
Contract
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Names of parties involved
Operationally defined behavior
Criteria to be met
Consequences for criteria
Dates/times/settings
Methods for renegotiation
Modeling, Guidance, and
Situational Inducement
Modeling
• Presenting a sample of a behavior for a
person to copy
• Factors that affect modeling
– More likely to imitate behavior of people most
like you
– Seeing a model earn a reinforcer
– The more models (exemplars) the better
– Provide rules as well
Physical Guidance
Method to teach imitation
– Generalized imitation results when individual can
imitate after being able to imitate a new response on
first trial without reinforcement.
• Client must be accepting of this being touched
* Not restrictive procedure: Get permission
– Sequence when the procedure is a complex chain
– Remember to fade the guided prompts
Situational Inducement
– Rearranging surroundings
– Move to new location
– Relocate people: Move away or move to the
environment
– Changing the time of the activity
• * To use this effectively, you need to do some
brainstorming about possible antecedents (i.e.
environmental arrangements) that could
contribute to the behavior.
Motivation
All behavior is goal directed
behavior
What are the motives of behavior?
• Attention: To get something
• Escape: To get out of something
• Sensory stimulation/Automatic
reinforcement: To get something
• Tangible reinforcement: To get something
Let’s tie the principles of
Behavior Modification Together
Phobias
• How might you define them?
• What causes them?
• How might you treat them?
Anxiety
• How might you define it?
• What causes it? How does it start?
Depression
• What is the cause? How does it start?
• How might you define it?
• How might you treat it?
Sadomasochism
• How might you define it?
• What causes it? How does it start?
• How might you treat it?
Clinical Behavior Therapy
Cognitive Behavior Modification
Cognition: belief, thought, expectancy,
attitude, or perception
• Assumption 1: People respond to events
in terms of their perceived significance.
• Assumption 2: Cognitive deficiencies
cause emotional disorders.
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√ Goal: Change cognition to make
better adjusted person
Method 1: Cognitive Restructuring
• Substituting rational thoughts and appraisal of
information for irrational or dysfunctional
thinking.
• Ellis: Rational Emotive Therapy (Later REBT)
• Beck: Cognitive Therapy
– Dichotomous Thinking: Absolute terms
– Arbitrary Inference: Faulty conclusions
– Overgeneralization: One failure means failure in
general
– Magnification: Exaggeration
Method 2: Self-instructional
Coping methods
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Identify internal stimuli that are stress
related
Use them as SD’s to engage in
appropriate self talk
Appropriate self talk through a set of
things to do to relax
Positive self reinforcing statements after
positive self talk
Method 3: Problem-Solving
Methods
• General orientation: Be systematic not
impulsive
• Problem Definition: Be specific
• Generation of alternatives: Brainstorm
solutions
• Decision making: Evaluate the pros and
cons to each alternative and pick the best
one.
• Verification: Keep track of progress (data)
Empirical Evaluation of Ellis
• Reducing self talk: 46%
• Reducing emotional distress: 27%
• Gossette and O’Brien (1992)
√ Effects probably due to homework
assignments, not the challenge of
cognition.
Let’s Add Cognitive Restructuring!
• Let’s not!
– 83% of research suggests it adds nothing!
– Helpful for social anxiety only
Empirical Evaluation of Beck
• No better than a placebo (placebo may be
effective!) [NIMH, 1989]
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- 55% BT, 52% IPT, 46% CT, 34%
BDPT (Agency for health care policy and
research, 1994)
Behavioral vs. Cognitive
• 83% of pure cognitive had no added
benefit.
√ Cognitive good for social-anxiety and
phobia
Two Points
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Cognitive techniques rely on rulegoverned behavior
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Rules control behavior only when linked
to environmental contingencies
Areas of Clinical Behavior Therapy
• Agoraphobia: In vivo exposure (group or
individual)
– Cognitive restructuring does not add anything
• OCD: In vivo exposure (65-75%)
– Cognitive (imagining) led by therapist adds to
effectiveness.
• Stress: Relaxation techniques and exercise
• Depression: Exercise is gaining a lot of
momentum
• placebo > no Tx and = to cognitive therapy
• 30-60 minutes 3 times per week
Areas of Clinical Behavior Therapy
• Alcohol Problems:
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Most successful programs use behavioral components such as:
Decreasing reinforcing properties of alcohol
Teaching new skills
Strategies to prevent relapse
Contingency management
SOCIAL SUPPORT IMPORTANT! DRA?
√ Tx good for problem drinkers not as effective for
alcoholics
• Obesity
– Self-monitoring, stimulus control, changing eating behavior,
behavioral contracts
Areas of Clinical Behavior Therapy
• Marital Distress
– Instigation of positive exchanges
– Communication Training
– Problem Solving Training
• Habit Disorders
– Habit reversal (Azrin & Nunn, 1973)
History
Respondent Conditioning
• 1904 Pavlov wins Noble Prize in Medicine
• 1913 J.B. Watson writes Behaviorists
Manifesto
• 1916 Little Albert
• 19 43 Clark Hull: Operant & Respondent
• 1958 Wolpe: reciprocal inhibition
Operant Conditioning
• 1938 Behavior of Organisms
• 1950 Keller & Schoenfield: Principles of
Psychology
• 1953 Science of Human Behavior
– Testing out: Sugar-milk, mmm-hmmm,
Jellybeans – Allyn & Michael (1959).
• 1965 Ullmann & Krasner: 1st bmod book
• 1982 Iwata (Functional Analysis)
Terms
• Behavior Modification: The large over
arching term to describe behavior
principles being used to modify behavior
• Behavior Therapy: Pavlov-wople
orientation with cognitive focus
• Behavior analysis: Operant orientation
(Function)
Ethics in Behavior
Modification
Ethical Issues for Human Services
• Have goals of treatment been adequately
considered?
• Has choice of treatment methods been
adequately considered?
• Clients participation voluntary?
• Subordinate client interests considered?
• Adequacy of treatment been evaluated?
• Confidentiality protected?
• Referrals when necessary?
• Therapist Qualified?
Careers in Behavior
Modification
So you want to be a behavior
modifier/analyst huh?
Schools in behavior analysis
• http://programs.gradschools.com/usa/appli
ed_behavior_analysis.html
• http://www.abainternational.org/sub/behavi
orfield/education/accreditation/index.asp
• Behavioral School Psychology
– Syracuse, MSU, USM, UN-L, UO, ISU?
Interesting Jobs
• Most you need a masters degree
– Certified as behavior analyst & Collect 3rd
party pay
• B.S. Marcus Institute, Kennedy Krieger,
• Ph.D.
– Licensed Psychologist