Introduction to Research
(Scientific Inquiry)
What is Research?
• research is an unusually stubborn and
persisting effort to think straight which
involves the gathering and the
intelligent use of relevant data
H. M. Hamlin, What is Research?
American Vocational Journal,
September 1966.
What is Educational Research?
• The ability to answer a question or concern
facing many of us in the area of Education.
• Teachers, counselors, administrators, parents,
and students continually need to seek
information in order to perform their jobs.
Origin of the Word
“Research”
• From the French word "recherche"
which means to travel through or
survey
How do we know
what we know and why do
we do what we do?
• Personal Experience (Sensory
Experience)
– Our personal experiences are limited
– We may be mistaken in our observations
– We may fail to see things clearly because
of our biases
The Fallacy of Personal
Experience
• You might have eaten some type of
food and got sick. Therefore, you never
eat this food again because it makes
you sick.
The Case Against Bread
• More than 98% of convicted felons are bread users.
• Fully half of all children who grow up in bread
consuming households score below average on
standardized tests.
• In the 18th century, when virtually all bread was
baked in the home, the average life expectancy was
less than 50 years.
• More than 90% of all violent crimes are committed
within 24 hours of eating bread.
• Primitive tribal societies that have no bread exhibit a
low incidence of cancer, Alzheimer's, and
Parkinson's disease.
Is it True?
• Do women make nicer bosses?
– Most of have seen the movie 9-5!
How do we know
what we know and why do
we do what we do?
• Tradition (Agreement with Others)
– Advice, rules, and approaches to handling
problems are passed from year to year and
accepted as truth
– Reliance on tradition eliminates the need to
search for knowledge, makes accepting new
knowledge difficult, and mitigates our desire to
question existing practice.
The Fallacy of Tradition
• Trees for building purposes should be felled in
December.
• When transplanting a tree, be careful to have the
same side facing the south.
• Wood from a tree struck by lightning should never
be used in the construction of a house, or barn, or
they in turn may also be struck by lightning.
• Rain drops on a child under a year will cause
freckles.
How do we know
what we know and why do
we do what we do?
• Authority (Expert Opinion)
– Authorities can be wrong, and the public
has a tendency to accept as fact what are
actually opinions.
The Fallacy of Authority
• In 1992 the Catholic Church reversed their
decision charging Galileo with heresy. He
had claimed the earth was round and
revolved around the sun,
which went against
the teachings
of the church.
Logic
• All human beings are mortal
• Sally is a human being
• Therefore, Sally is mortal
Research (The Scientific
Method)
• In contrast to sources of knowledge that are
primarily idiosyncratic, informal, and
influenced heavily by subjective
interpretations, research involves a
systematic process of gathering,
interpreting, and reporting information.
The Scientific Method
• Testing ideas in the public arena by
formulating a hypothesis (a tentative, testable
assertion about certain behaviors, phenomena,
or events) within a rigorous format.
• Must be reproducible and described in
sufficient detail through 5 distinct steps:
–
–
–
–
State the problem
Define the purpose of the study
How to gather the information
How to organize and analyze the information
obtained
– How the information is interpreted
Ways of Knowing
Two Approaches to Research
• Quantitative
– Emphasizes numbers,
measurements, control,
and experimentation
– This is the traditional
approach in educational
research
• Qualitative
– Emphasizes natural
settings, observations,
verbal narratives, and
interpretations
– Emerged in the mid1970s as an approach to
educational research
Goals
• Quantitative
–
–
–
–
–
Test theory
Establish facts
Show relationships
Predict
Statistically
describe
• Qualitative
– Understand theory
– Develop
understanding
– Describe multiple
realities
– Capture naturally
occurring behavior
Design
• Quantitative
–
–
–
–
Structured
Predetermined
Formal
Specific
• Qualitative
– Evolving
– Flexible
– General
Sample
• Quantitative
–
–
–
–
–
Large
Representative
Random Selection
Control Groups
Stratified
• Qualitative
– Small
– Nonrepresentative
– Purposeful
Data
• Quantitative
–
–
–
–
–
–
Quantities
Counts
Measures
Instruments
Numbers
Statistics
• Qualitative
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Verbal descriptions
Field Notes
Observations
Documents
Photographs
People’s own words
Narrative
Methods
• Quantitative
–
–
–
–
Experiments
Quasi-experiments
Surveys
Structured
Interviews
– Structured
Observations
• Qualitative
– Observation
– Open-ended
interviewing
– Review of
documents and
artifacts
Which Approach is Best?
• The problem you are studying determines
which approach to take.
• One is not better than the other.
• However, some researchers tend to look
down their nose at the qualitative researcher!
Which Would You Select?
• Job turnover is a major problem in teaching!
• Get with a partner and quickly design a study
to investigate this problem.
– Decide whether to approach this problem
quantitatively or qualitatively
– Tell What you would do and Why
– What are the advantages and disadvantages of
your approach
“Mixed Methods”
• Some researchers used both qualitative
and quantitative methods in a single
study. This is known as a “mixed
method” approach.
Categories of Research
• Basic
• Applied
• Action
The process used in the 3 types of research is the
same; the setting and outcomes are different
Basic Research
• Also called pure or fundamental research
• The goal is to understand and explain, to
provide broad generalizations about how
phenomena are related.
• Not concerned with immediate application of
the results to practical situations
• Most educational research does not fall into
this category!
Examples of Basic Research
in Education
• How does the memory system work
• How are language skills developed
• How does one learn psychomotor skills
Applied Research
• The purpose is to test theories and
other ideas in the context of naturally
occurring educational settings.
• Usually focused on a problem that
needs to be solved to improve
educational practice.
Examples of Applied
Research
• Does computer aided instruction
improve student learning?
• What is the effect of immediate
feedback and delayed feedback on
student achievement?
Action Research
• Typically done in a school setting
• Is designed and conducted by
practitioners who analyze the data to
improve their own practice. Action
research can be done by individuals or
by teams of colleagues.
Action Research
It has been said, "Teachers often
leave a mark on their students, but
they seldom leave a mark on their
profession" (Wolfe, 1989).
Through the process and products
of action research teachers can do
both.
Examples of Action Research
• Does “flash cards” of horticultural plants
with scientific names improve student
learning?
• Do leaf collections really help students learn
tree identification?
• Do classes with assigned seats have less
discipline problems than classes without
assigned seating?
Action Research
• Get back with your partner and identify
three examples of action research a
teacher or administrator could conduct
in their local setting.
Types of Research
• There is no general agreement on the
types of educational research which
exist. The list that follows is fairly
comprehensive.
Types of Research
• Historical* - What was
• Descriptive (sometimes called Survey) – What is
– Ethnographic
– Correlational
– Ex Post Facto (also known as Causel-Comparative)
• Experimental – What can be
*Some
researchers classify Historical
research as Descriptive research
Types of Research
• Historical - descriptive research that involves
describing and interpreting events,
conditions, or situations of the past. As with
all history, the purpose is to study the past in
order to understand the present, and maybe
to plan for the future.
• It generally relies on qualitative data such as
written documents and oral histories.
Historical Research
• It is possibly the least popular form of
educational research in terms of the number
of studies produced on an annual basis.
• Grant and other types of educational research
funding tend to favor current issues and
conditions.
Historical Research
• Historical research also can be difficult if the
period is far enough back in time that records
are not readily available and individuals
associated with the event are no longer alive.
• However, if done well, historical research
can be most interesting particularly if a
connection is made to a present issue or
situation.
Historical Research
Examples
• What was the predecessor of the Cooperative
Extension Service?
• What does John Dewey say about the integration of
academic and vocational education?
• What did FFA members read in the past and what are
the implications for the present?
• How did Farm Life Schools differ from regular high
schools?
Historical Research
• Basic characteristics of historical research
are:
– rich descriptive narrative.
– mostly qualitative data presented.
– broad research questions are frequently used
rather than narrowly defined hypotheses.
Historical Research
• Data Sources
– Persons such as former teachers, students,
parents.
– Historical Documents such as policy statements,
curricular guidelines, etc.
– Records such as student transcripts.
– Relics such as desks, writing instruments,
equipment.
Historical Research
• Research Tools
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–
–
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Structured interviews.
Visits to historical sites and buildings.
Archives
Libraries
Types of Research
• Descriptive - attempts to describe and
explain conditions of the present. It relies on
qualitative and quantitative data gathered
from written documents, personal interviews,
test results, surveys, etc. Often people will
call this type of research “Survey Research”
Descriptive Research
• Because of its flexibility and the fact that it
deals with current topics, descriptive
research is probably the most popular form
of research in education today.
• It is also popular because data can be
collected from a wide variety of sources.
Descriptive Research
• Basic characteristics of descriptive research
are:
– It provides a descriptive analysis of a given
population or sample. Any inferences are left to
the readers.
– Qualitative, quantitative or a combination of both
types of data can be presented.
– Hypotheses or broad research questions are used .
Descriptive Research
• Data Sources
– Persons such as teachers, students,
parents, administrators, etc.
– Documents such as policy statements,
curricular guidelines.
– Records such as student transcripts.
Descriptive Research
• Research Tools
– Structured interviews.
– Structured questionnaires and surveys
– Standardized tests.
Descriptive Research
Examples
• What are the characteristics of career and
technical education students?
• What is the level of job satisfaction of Career
and Technical Education teachers?
• Why do teachers leave the profession?
Types of Research
• Ethnographic - attempts to describe
group behavior and interactions in
social settings. It relies on qualitative
techniques especially observation and
careful recording of events and social
interactions.
Ethnographic Research
• Ethnography is from the Greek "ethnos" for people,
tribes, or nations and "graphy" for writing.
• Ethnographic research is the writing about people in
their natural setting.
• It comes from the social sciences and was made
popular by the likes of Margaret Mead, the noted
anthropologist.
Ethnographic Research…
• It is a form of descriptive research and is also
referred to as "observational research" and
"naturalistic inquiry."
• Ethnography is well-suited for educational
research because so much of what we do in
education is based on human interaction in
social settings.
Ethnographic Research…
• The major benefit of ethnographic research is that it
provides rich descriptions of human behavior in
natural settings not in artificially constructed,
experimental settings.
• In addition to the question of subjectivity, the major
drawback of ethnography is that the researcher
cannot infer from a small sample to larger
populations.
• Any inferences made in an ethnographic study are
left to the readers to accept or reject.
Ethnographic Research…
• Data Sources
– Persons associated with the subject of study.
– Observations.
• Research Tools
– Structured Interviews.
– Careful recording of events.
Ethnographic Research…
• Examples
– What is the impact of peer pressure on student
behavior?
– Does the gender of the teacher affect class
participation?
– Does teacher movement in the classroom
contribute to desirable student behavior?
Types of Research
• Correlational - attempts to explore
relationships or make predictions. It relies on
quantitative data such as test scores, grade
point averages, attitudinal instruments, etc.
which can be correlated and shown that some
relationship exists between or among them.
Correlational Research
• A caution has to be advised when
considering correlational research and cause
and effect.
– Establishing cause and effect is very difficult and
may be impossible due to the myriad interactions
of many variables in social science research.
Correlational Research
• Data Sources
– Raw scores such as standardized test scores.
– Measures such as grade point averages.
– Dichotomous data , data which has two
possibilities such as male/female or pass/fail.
Correlational Research
• Research Tools
– Standardized tests are the most common
tools for doing correlational studies.
Correlational Research
• Correlation is the relationship between two or more
variables or sets of data.
• It is expressed in the form of a coefficient with +1.00
indicating a perfect positive correlation; -1.00
indicating a perfect inverse correlation; 0.00
indicating a complete lack of a relationship.
• You can start getting excited if the correlation is .40
or higher.
Correlational Research
• Commonly used statistics to calculate
correlations
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–
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–
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Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation
Spearmans Rank Order Correlation
Kendall’s Tau
Point Biserial
Phi Correlation Coefficient
Correlational Research
Examples
• Is there a relationship between family income and
grade point average?
• Is there a relationship between part time employment
and grade point average?
• Is there a relationship between years of teaching
experience and VoCATS scores?
• Is there a relationship between education and
income?
Types of Research
• Causal Comparative (Ex Post Facto) attempts to explore cause and effect
relationships where causes already exist and
cannot be manipulated. It relies on both
qualitative and quantitative data such as
written documents, interviews, test scores,
etc.
Ex Post Facto Research
• In educational research there are some things
we can not manipulate, but we can study the
effects after they have occurred:
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Malnutrition
Twins
4-H or FFA member
Growing up on a farm
Sexual abuse
Race, gender
Ex Post Facto Research
• In experimental research:
– If X, then Y
• In ex post facto research:
– Y is observed, X, Q or Z may have caused
it
The researchers job is to
discover if it is X, Q or Z.
Ex Post Facto Research
• Examples
– Are former FFA members more likely to hold
community leadership positions?
– Do malnourished children have lower grades in
school?
– Do agriculture teachers who were state FFA
officers have more active FFA chapters?
– Do people who were reared on a farm have a
stronger work ethic?
The “treatment” has already occurred!
Types of Research
• Experimental - attempts to explore
cause and effect relationships where
causes can be manipulated to produce
different kinds of effects. It relies
mostly on quantitative data such as test
scores and measures of performance.
Two Types of Experimental
Research
• Quasi-Experimental
– Specific Hypothesis
– Researcher manipulates
at least 1 variable
– Assigns treatment at
random to each group
– Has a control group
– CANNOT
RANDOMLY ASSIGN
SUBJECTS TO
GROUPS
• True Experimental
– Specific Hypothesis
– Researcher manipulates
at least 1 variable
– Assigns treatment at
random to each group
– Has a control group
– Randomly assigns
subjects to groups
Typically uses intact classes
Experimental Research
Examples
• Is teaching method A better in bringing
about student learning than method B?
• Does a teaching unit on “Race
Relationships” improve students’ racial
tolerance?
Why Conduct Research?
• To better understand various phenomena
• To disprove fraudulent claims
• To improve education, agriculture or your
discipline
• To obtain grants
• To get promoted (if you teach at the
university)
Purposes or end sought
To become familiar with
phenomena; to gain new
insights; to formulate a
more specific research
problem or research
hypothesis.
Types of research
To portray accurately
the incidence,
distribution, and
characteristics of a
group or situation.
(Usually not begun
with specific
hypothesis.)
(Explore)
(Describe)
To investigate
relationships
between variables.
(Begins with
specific
hypotheses.)
(Explain –
Predict)
To test
hypoteses of
causal
relationships
between
variables.
(Begins with
specific
hypotheses.)
(Control)
Descriptive Research
Correlational/Ex Post Facto
Survey Research
Exp./Quasi-Exp.
Independent Variables
Independent variables (X) not controlled by investigator
Independent Var.
(X) controlled by
investigator