What is an Argument?
ar·gu·ment
• an oral disagreement; verbal opposition; contention;
altercation.
• a discussion involving differing points of view; debate.
• a process of reasoning; series of reasons.
• a statement, reason, or fact for or against a point.
• THE MAIN IDEA- BACKED UP WITH EVIDENCE
THAT SUPPORTS THE IDEA.
Where does it fit?- The proper goal of
argument is to use rhetoric to persuade for good reasons- to create good
arguments.
RHETORIC
PERSUASION
ARGUMENT
Toulmin Model of Argument
• Stephen Toulmin is the “Father of Argument”
• British, 1922-2009
• The “Toulmin Model of Argumentation” has six
components:
• Claim
• Warrant
• Data
• Impact
• Rebuttal
Toulmin/Common Core Made
Easy
Claim: What do I think/want you to believe at the end of the
speech/essay
Warrant: How do I know this true/the underlying reasoning that makes
sense of the claim in light of the data- links the claim and the data
Data: What expert/information do I have that proves this is true
Rebuttal: Anticipate possible objections to your claim and insert
responses
Impact: Why do you/ the listener/reader care that this is true
Toulmin’s Example
In The Uses of Argument (1958):
• Claim: Thesis/Conclusion whose merit must be established. For
example, if a person tries to convince a listener that he is a British
citizen, the claim would be "I am a British citizen.”
• Warrant: The statement authorizing our movement from the data to the
claim- the inferential leap that connects the claim with the data. In order
to move from the claim, "I am a British citizen," to the data, the person
must supply a warrant to bridge the gap between 1 & 3 with the
statement "A man born in Bermuda will legally be a British Citizen.”
• Data: The facts we appeal to as a foundation for the claim. For example,
the person introduced in 1 can support his claim with the supporting
data, "I was born in Bermuda.”
• Impact: The impact is why the argument matters- consider the audience
here! “Citizens of Britain can travel to the US without burdensome red
tape.”
Example
• Example from John Gage’s The Shape of Reason:
• Claim: Congress should ban animal research (claim #1) because
animals are tortured in experiments that have no necessary benefits for
humans, such as the testing of cosmetics (data). The well being of
animals is more important than than the profits of the cosmetics
industry (warrant). Only Congress has the authority to make such a
law (warrant) because the corporations can simply move state to state
to avoid legal penalties (data). The use of animals for research is
unnecessary cruelty that does not benefit humans, harms animals and is
immoral. As such, it diminishes our society’s claim to morality.
Example: Direct
Postal Service reports $5.2B loss in 3rd quarter
By ASSOCIATED PRESS |7/9/12 9:35 AM EDT
WASHINGTON (AP) — The nearly bankrupt U.S. Postal Service on Thursday
reported a quarterly loss of $5.2 billion and warned it will miss another
payment due to the Treasury, just one week after its first-ever default on a
payment for future retiree health benefits. From April to June, losses were $2.1
billion more than during the same period last year.
The mail agency said it is being hurt significantly by mounting costs for
future retiree health benefits. Those expenses made up $3.1 billion of the
post office's quarterly loss. Declining first-class mail volume also contributed
to losses.
"We have simply reached the point that we must conserve cash," Thurgood
Marshall Jr., chairman of the Postal Service's board of governors, said in
explaining the payment defaults. He cautioned that the mail agency may have
to delay other payments if necessary but that day-to-day mail service will not
be impacted in any way.
The Postal Service for months has been urging Congress to pass legislation that
would allow it to eliminate Saturday mail delivery and reduce the annual
health payment of more than $5 billion. The post office defaulted on that
payment last week after the House failed to take action before heading
home for a five-week break.
Claim: The U.S. Post
Office needs help from
Congress.
Warrant: They are
nearly bankrupt with
mounting costs for
retiree health benefits
and decline in first-class
mail.
Data: $5.2B losses in 3rd
quarter
Impact: Postal service
will be disrupted,
harming Americans
personally and
financially.
Example: Inferred
Claim: Airport
security is infringing
on rights.
Warrant: Liberty is
being threatened by
TSA practices.
Data: TSA requires
invasive scans or pat
downs to pass
through security.
Impact: Our rights are
being impinged upon
Simple Example
Claim = My parents should allow me to go to my friend’s party on Friday night.
Data = The parents of nearly all of the seniors at NHS have given their children permission
to attend this party.
Warrant = My parents should act in accordance with the other parents of juniors at CHS.
Uh-oh, a potential snag…
What if my parents don’t “buy” my warrant? What if they don’t think they should
necessarily do what other parents are doing?
How can I still get permission to attend the party? Or at least have a better chance of
getting permission?
Uses for Argument
• Academic Essays
• Debates/Speeches
• Conversations/General Logic
“Argumentation is thus not a way of
ARRIVING AT IDEAS,
but rather a way of
TESTING IDEAS CRITICALLY.”
-Stephen P. Toulmin, 2001