Focus Group Interviews • Unstructured, free-flowing interviews with small groups of people.
• Consists of – Moderator or interviewer – 6 to 10 participants – Note taker • Moderator introduces topic and encourages group members to discuss the subject amongst themselves.
• Allow people to discuss their true feelings in their own words

Advantages of Focus Group Interviews • Relatively fast • Easy to execute • Inexpensive • Numerous topics can be discussed (unlike surveys) • Multiple insights can be gained

Drawbacks of Focus Group Interviews • Require sensitive and effective moderators – Without such, self-appointed participants may dominate a session – Halo effect on attitudes toward the concept or topic of discussion may occur, if group reacts negatively to a dominant member • Participants may not be representative of the population of interest.

Requirements for Effective Focus Groups • Six to ten participants • Carefully screen participants – Want people who have knowledge about the topic at hand • Homogeneous participants in terms of some characteristic under study • Relaxed atmosphere • If possible, room with one-way mirror and audio and video-recording capabilities • Session duration around one hour • Trained moderator • Compensate for participation

7 Habits of Effective Moderators 1. Establish personal contact with each respondent early 2. Help respondents feel relaxed early on 3. Win respondents to your side 4.
• • Deal with loud respondents; but don’t intimidate other respondents Don’t look at them when you ask questions Don’t acknowledge their raised hands 5. Deal with inconsistent, unclear answers by mobilizing the group to help 6. Create an environment where anything a respondent wants to say is acceptable 7.
Don’t assume you know what a respondent means by an ambiguous answer

When NOT to use Focus Groups • Emotionally charged environment • Researcher has lost control over critical aspects of the study • Statistical projections are needed • Other methodologies can produce better quality information • Other methodologies can produce more economical information of the same quality • Researcher cannot ensure the confidentiality of sensitive information

Types of Focus Group Questions • Opening Question – Round robin question – Designed to be answered rather quickly – Designed to identify characteristics participants have in common – Preferably factual (rather than attitude or opinions) • Introductory Question – Introduce general topic of discussion • Key Questions – 2 to 5 max – The questions you really want answers to • Ending Questions – Bring closure to the discussion. Most common is the summary question

Some Things to Consider • Avoid Dichotomous Questions – Questions answerable with a “yes” or “no” • Avoid asking “Why” – Has a sharpness or pointedness that reminds one of interrogations • Asked Uncued Questions first; Cued
Questions second
– Uncued : Open-ended; usually based on recent experiences or impressions – Cued : Questions that specify some topic or aspect of a topic

Scientific Observation Is Systematic “YOU SEE, BUT YOU DO NOT OBSERVE.”
Sherlock Holmes

• The
systematic
process of recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects, and occurrences as they are witnessed.
• No questioning or communicating with people typically occurs.
• “Where observation is concerned, chance favors only the prepared mind.” – Louis Pasteur

What Can Be Observed
Phenomena Example
Human behavior or physical Shoppers movement action pattern in a store Verbal behavior Statements made by airline travelers who wait in line Expressive behavior Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other form of body language

What Can Be Observed
Phenomena Example
Spatial relations and locations Temporal patterns Physical objects Verbal and Pictorial Records How close visitors at an art museum stand to paintings How long fast-food customers wait for their order to be served What brand name items are stored in consumers’ pantries Bar codes on product packages

Categories of Observation • Human versus mechanical • Visible versus hidden • Direct

• Visible Observation – Observer’s presence is known to the subject.
• Hidden Observation – Subject is unaware that observation is taking place.
– Minimizes respondent error

• Straightforward attempt to observe and record what naturally occurs • The investigator does not create an artificial situation – Observer Bias • Distortion of measurement resulting from the cognitive behavior or actions of a witnessing observer – Response Latency

Response Latency • Recording the decision time
necessary to make a choice between two alternatives
• It is presumed to indicate the
strength of preference between alternatives.

Observation of Human Behavior Benefits • Communication with respondent
not necessary
• No distortions due to self-report
(e.g.: no social desirability) bias
• No need to rely on respondents’
memory
• Nonverbal behavior data may be
obtained

Observation of Human Behavior Benefits • Certain data may be obtained
more quickly
• Environmental conditions may
be recorded
• May be combined with survey
to provide supplemental evidence

Observation of Human Behavior Limitations • Cognitive phenomena cannot be
observed
• Interpretation of data may be a
problem
• Not all activity can be recorded • Only short periods can be observed • Observer bias possible • Possible invasion of privacy

Observation of Physical Objects • Physical-trace evidence –Wear and tear of a book
indicates how often it has been read

Content Analysis • Obtains data by observing and
analyzing the content of advertisements, letters, articles, etc.
• Deals with the study of the message
itself
• Measures the extent of emphasis or
omission

Mechanical Observation • Traffic
Counters
• Web Traffic • Scanners • Physiological
Measures

Physiological Reactions

Eye Tracking Monitors

Pupilometer • Device observes and
records changes in the diameter of the subject’s pupils.

Psychogalvanometer • Measures galvanic skin
response
–Involuntary changes in
electrical resistance of the skin
• Assumption: –physiological changes
accompany emotional reactions

Voice Pitch Analysis • Measures emotional
reactions through physiological changes in a person’s voice

Measuring Physiological Reactions Problems
• No strong theoretical evidence
supports argument that physiological change is valid measure of future sales, attitude change, or emotional response
• Calibration (or sensitivity) of the
measuring devices
–Identifying arousal is one thing –Precisely measuring levels of arousal
is another

Measuring Physiological Reactions Problems
• Expense of the measuring
devices
• Subjects usually are place in
artificial surroundings and know they are being observed