PHYSICS 3-3
The texts for this course are:
1. H. D. Young & R. A. Freedman, UNIVERSITY
PHYSICS 10TH ed. 1999.
2. H. D. Young & R. A. Freedman, MODERN PHYSICS
11TH ed. 2003.
3. French, A.P. VIBRATIONS AND WAVES 1971.
4. Bekefi & Barrett, ELECTROMAGNETIC
VIBRATIONS, WAVES AND RADIATION 1977.
5. Asimov, I. Atom: JOURNEY ACROSS THE
SUBATOMIC COSMOS 1991.
6. JUST SIX NUMBERS, Martin Rees, 2000.
7. ? THE ASCENT OF SCIENCE OUP 2000.
1
Opening remarks: Welcome
Introductory class business:
Dr. BILL MILLS IS
•
•
•
•
The husband of one.
The father of 16 (including in-laws).
The grandfather of 8 so far.
A Christian Priest, Ecumenist, Theologian &
Apologist. A Physicist, and an International
Attorney.
• Committed to responsible epistemology.
• A positivist*
2
I am not
Inerrant, infallible, nor immune from
mere Scribner error.
3
IN OPPOSITION OR
IN HARMONY?
“Religion and science are
opposed…but only in the same sense
as that in which my thumb and
forefinger are opposed- and between
the two, one can grasp everything.”
Sir William Bragg
4
“Who can learn anything new and
not find it a shock?” John Wheeler
It is helpful to regularly review even
our most fundamental
understandings in light of our most
recent discoveries.
Religion and Science:
Two Sides Of One Coin
Warm summer evenings in Greece in the 4th century B.C.
Democritus¹: 460-370 B.C. “Atomic system” wandering
lights in the night sky, (GK. “planetes”, “wanderers”).
Stationary grains of sand on the sea shore, (“atomos”,
“atoms” meaning “indivisible” or “unbreakable).
Aristotle: 384-322 B.C. The father of science. Knowing
the physical world inexorable leads to knowing the
existence of God & His qualities. (“physika”, “physics”, Gk.
“of nature”, “to bring forth”). Four elements, each with
their unique place & duty in the universe² Everything held
in it’s place, whether fixed or in motion, by eternal
natural laws, ordained by God.
6
INTRODUCTION
Measurement Standards & degrees of uncertainty:
VECTORS & SCALARS:
A scalar has only magnitude and no direction.
A vector is a physical quantity that requires the
specification of both direction and magnitude.
7
HOW SURE CAN WE BE?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Small sample error: One type of error in inductive
reasoning: “Crocodile Dundee” TV scene in NY motel:
“Yep, that’s what I saw.”
Galileo's experiments:
The speed of light: How closely are we looking?
The spontaneous generation of flies: How closely
controlled is our experiment?
Climate Change: How long will it take to know?
Falling balls off the roof at the library at the U. of Padua.
On a ship at sea.
Inclined planes.
8
Epistemology
How certain can I be?
“Any measurement that you make (decision
that you come to) without knowledge of its
uncertainty is completely meaningless.” “A
measurement that doesn’t also indicate its
degree of accuracy is meaningless.”
“Knowing degrees of accuracy is critical to
so many things in our lives.” Dr. Walter
Lewin: FOR THE LOVE OF PHYSICS, 2011
pgs. x. ,8. (Parenthetical comment added.)
9
UNITS & DIMENSIONS
INTRODUCTION & OVERVIEW
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS OF THE S.I.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
LENGTH = METER¹.
MASS = KILOGRAMME².
TIME = SECOND³.
ELECTRIC CURRENT = AMPERE⁴.
THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE = °KELVIN⁵.
AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE = MOLE⁶.
LUMINOUS INTENSITY = CANDELA⁷; cd.
10
UNITS & DIMENSIONS
INTRODUCTION & OVERVIEW
DERIVED UNITS OF THE S.I.
8. °Celsius¹.
9. 2D & 3D Angle: Radian; rad & Steradian; st.
10.Area & Volume: Metre squared; M² & cubed; M³.
11.Velocity: Metre/second; m/s⁻¹.
12.Acceleration: Metre/second²; m/s⁻².
13.Density: Kilogramme/metre³; kgm⁻³.
14.Mass rate of flow: Kilogramme/sec; kgs⁻¹.
15.Volume rate of flow: Cubic metre/sec; m³s⁻¹.
16.Moment of inertia: kg m².
17. Momentum & Angular: kg m s⁻¹ & kg m² s⁻¹ .
11
UNITS & DIMENSIONS
INTRODUCTION & OVERVIEW
DERIVED UNITS OF THE S.I.
18. Force: Newton; kg m s⁻².
19. Torque (Moment of Force): Newton Metre; NM.
20. Work (Energy Heat): Joule; 1J = 1NM = 1kg m²s⁻².
21. Power: Watt; 1w = 1J s⁻¹.
22.Frequency: Hertz; Hz= waves/s⁻¹.
23.Electric Charge: Coulomb; C = A s.
24.Pressure: Pascal; Pa = kg/m s² = N/m² = J/m³.
25. Pressure & Surface Tension: NM.
26. Luminous flux: Lumen; lm = cd sr.
27.Illumination: Lux; lx = lm m⁻².
12
UNITS & DIMENSIONS
INTRODUCTION & OVERVIEW
DERIVED UNITS OF THE S.I.
28.Electric potential difference: Volt;
V = kg m²/s³ A = J/A s = J/C
29. Electric resistance: Ohm; Ω = kg m²/s³A² = V/A.
30.Electric conductance: Siemens; S = s³A²/kg m² = Ω⁻¹.
31.Electric capacitance: Farad;
F = A₂s⁴/kg m² = A s/V = C/V.
32.Magnetic flux: Weber; Wb = kg m²/s²A V s.
33.Inductance: Henry; H = kg m²/s²A² = V s/A = Wb/A.
34.Magnetic flux density (magnetic induction) :
Tesla; T = kg/s²A = V s/m².
13
UNITS & DIMENSIONS
INTRODUCTION & OVERVIEW
VARIATIONS OF THE S.I.
35. Energy: Erg; erg = g cm²/s² = 10⁻⁷ J.
36. Force: Dyne; dyn = g cm/s² = 10⁻⁵ N.
37. Viscosity: Poise; P = g/cm s = 10⁻¹ Pa s.
38. Kinetic Viscosity: Stokes; St = cm²/s = 10⁻⁴m²/s.
39. Length: Micron; μ = 10⁻⁴ cm = 10⁻⁶m.
40. Length: Angstrom: Å = 10⁻⁸cm = 10⁻¹⁰m.
41. Volume: Liter; l = 10³ cm³ = 1 dm³ = 10⁻³ m³.
42. Mass: Tonne; t = 10⁶g = 10³kg.
43. Pressure: Bar; bar = 10⁶ dyn/cm² = 10⁵ Pa.
44. Concentration (Molarity):
M = 10⁻³ mol/cm³ = mol/liter = mol/dm³.
14
MEASURING IN 3
DIMENSTIONS IN METERS:
Distance from earth to most remote known quasar: 1 * 10²⁶.
“
“
“ “ “
“
“ Galaxy: 4 * 10²⁵.
“
“
“ “ nearest galaxy (m-31):
2 * 10²².
“
“
“ to nearest star:
4 * 10¹⁶.
One light-year:
9 * 10¹⁵.
Our Solar System:
1 *10¹⁵.
Mean orbital radius of the earth:
2 * 10¹¹.
A view of our earth & moon:
1 *10¹⁰.
Mean distance from earth to moon:
4 * 10⁸.
Mean radius of the earth:
6 * 10⁶.
15
Typical altitude of orbiting satellite:
2 * 10⁵.
MEASURING IN 3
DIMENSTIONS IN METERS:
Length of a football field:
A Human:
Length of a housefly:
Smallest dust particles:
Most cells in most living organisms:
Diameter of A water molecule:
Diameter of A hydrogen atom:
Diameter of an atomic nucleus:
Diameter of An Electron & a proton:
Diameter of SuperStrings:
9 * 10¹.
2 X .3 X .3.
5 * 10⁻³.
1 * 10⁻⁴.
1 * 10⁻⁵.
1 * 10⁻⁸.
1 * 10⁻¹⁰.
1 * 10⁻¹⁴.
1 * 10⁻¹⁵.
1 * 10⁻²⁰.
16
MEASURING IN THE 4TH
DIMENSTION: THE
STREAM OF TIME IN SECONDS:
Lifetime of a proton:
Age of the Observable Universe:
Age of the earth:
Age of the Pyramid of Cheops:
U.S. Human Life Expectancy:
Average age of a college student:
One year:
Length of a day:
Interval between human heartbeats:
Period of audible sound waves:
1 * 10³⁹.
5 * 10¹⁷.
1 * 10¹⁷.
1 * 10¹¹.
2 * 10⁹.
6 * 10⁸.
3 * 10⁷.
9 * 10⁴.
8 * 10⁻¹.
1 * 10⁻³.
17
MEASURING IN THE 4TH
DIMENSTION: THE
STREAM OF TIME IN SECONDS:
Period of concert-A tuning fork:
2 * 10⁻³.
Period of typical radio waves:
1 * 10⁻⁶.
Lifetime of a Muon:
2 * 10⁻⁶.
Period of vibration of an atom in a solid:
1 * 10⁻¹³.
Period of visible light waves:
2 * 10⁻¹⁵.
Duration of a nuclear collision:
1 * 10⁻²².
Time for light to cross a proton:
3 * 10⁻²⁴.
Lifetime of most unstable particle (1989): 1 *10⁻²³.
Plank’s Epoch:
1 *10⁻⁴³.
18
MEASURING MASS IN KG:
OUR OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE:
OUR MILKYWAY GALAXCY:
OUR SUN:
EARTH:
OUR MOON:
AN AVERAGE SHARK:
AN AVERAGE HUMAN:
AN AVERAGE FROG:
AN AVERAGE MOSQUITO:
AN AVERAGE BACTERIUM:
A HYDROGEN ATOM:
AN ELECTRON:
1 * 10⁵².
7 * 10⁴¹.
2 * 10³⁰.
6 * 10²⁴.
7 * 10²².
1 * 10².
7 * 10¹.
1 * 10⁻¹.
1 * 10⁻⁵.
1 * 10⁻¹⁵.
1 * 10⁻²⁷.
1 * 10⁻³¹.
19
MEASURING ENERGY & POWER
OUTPUT IN JOULES¹ & WATTS²:
SUNLIGHT IN ONE YEAR:
SUNLIGHT IN ONE YEAR:
EARTH’S ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY:
EARTH’S DAILY INPUT OF SOLAR ENERGY:
AN AVERAGE H BOMB
100% CONVERSION OF 1 GRAMOM MATTER 𝐄 = 𝐌𝐂² :
WORLD’S CURRENT ENERGY CONSUMPTION:
ONE BARREL OF OIL:
ONE AVERAGE POWER PLANT:
ONE MEDIUM PIZZA:
ONE D CELL BATTERY:
ONE MOSQUITO PUSHUP:
FISSION OF ONE ATOM OF U-235:
ONE PERSON:
10³⁴ J.
10²⁶ W.
10²⁹ J.
10²² J.
10¹⁷ J.
10¹⁴ J.
10¹³ W.
10¹⁰ J.
10⁹. W.
10⁷ J.
10⁴ J.
10⁻⁷ J.
10⁻¹¹ J.
10020W.
LARGE NUMBERS
& DIVERSE SCALES
“We are each made up of between 10²⁸ and 10²⁹
atoms. This ‘human scale’ is, in a numerical sense,
poised midway between the masses of atoms and
stars. It would take roughly as many human bodies
to make up the mass of the Sun as there are atoms
in each of us. But our Sun is just an ordinary star in
the galaxy that contains a hundred billion stars
altogether. There are at least as many galaxies in our
Observable Universe as there are stars in a galaxy.
More than 10⁷⁸ atoms lie within range of our
telescope.” There are @ 3 * 10²⁷ stars.
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LARGE NUMBERS
& DIVERSE SCALES
“Living organisms are configured into layer
upon layer of complex structure. Atoms are
assembled into complex molecules; these
react, via complex pathways in every cell, and
indirectly lead to the entire interconnected
structure that makes up a tree, an insect or a
human. We straddle the cosmos and the
microworld-intermediate in side between the
Sun, at a billion metres in diameter, and a
molecule at a billionth of a metre.
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LARGE NUMBERS
& DIVERSE SCALES
It is actually no coincidence that nature attains
its maximum complexity on this intermediate
scale: Anything larger, if it were a habitable
planet, would be vulnerable to breakage or
crushing by gravity.”
“ We are vulnerable to viruses a millionth of a
metre in length, and the minute DNA doublehelix molecule encodes our total genetic
heritage. And it‘s just as obvious that we
depend on the Son for its power.
23
Uni-verse or Cosmos?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Are There Universal Laws, (Equations)?
Are There Universal Constants?
Are There Universal Elements?
Are There Universal Forces
We do not live in an (exclusively) material world!
We live in a Universe, with Eternal Laws,
Constants, Elements, (materials) and Forces.
• They are the Typical God: Eternal, unchanging,
omniscient, omnipotent, & omnipresent!
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There Are many Universal
Laws, (Equations)!
The Five Equations that changed the world are a few
examples:
1. Gravity F = G x M₁ X M₂/d². Newton.
2. The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: (Entropy)
ΔS ˃ 0. Clausius or ΔS = ΔQ/t.
3. Hydrodynamics: Constant = P/ρ + gz + v²/2. Bernoulli*.
4. Electromagnetic induction¹: (EM)
ΔX E = -∂B/∂T. Faraday-Maxwell. F = K x q₁ x q₂/d².
Coulomb.
5. Matter is energy: 𝑬 = 𝑴𝑪². Einstein
25
There Are Universal
Constants!
• There are hundreds of precise Fundamental
Constants in our universe. They must be EXACT:
• Never more. Never less.
• No where more. No where less.
• Never different. No where different.
• “Who can learn anything new and not find it a
shock?” John Wheeler
• It is helpful to regularly review even our most
fundamental understandings in light of our most
recent discoveries.
26
There Are Universal
Constants!
Just Six Numbers that control our universe! (Sir Martin Rees)
1. N = EM/G = @ 1x10³⁵: The strength of the electrical magnetic force that holds atoms in their places within molecules,
divided by the gravitational force pulling them together, =
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000!
2. ε = 0.007*: Determines how firmly atomic nuclei bind
together, how atoms are made, which atoms & how many of
each atom are made, & it controls the sun’s power.
3. Ω = Σm\G = @ .3: The total amount of material in the universe, both what we can see, (stars, planets etc.) and the “spiritual” matter, (“Dark matter”) that we cannot see divided by the
gravitational force . This balances the gravity, (G) and expansion
27
energy of the universe, (Λ) .
There Are Universal
Constants!
Just Six Numbers that control our universe!
(Sir Martin Rees)
4. Λ = @ 0.7: The expansion energy of the universe
expressed in relationship to # 3¹. This results in a
slow steady expansion of 70.4 +/- 1.4 kilometers
per second per megaparsec.
5. Q = Σrme* /G: The gravitational force divided by
the expansion energy of the universe, Λ : @
1x10¯5 = 1/100,000.
6. D = 3. The number of dimensions in space-time.
28
There Are Universal
Constants!
Seven correlate to the Forces that control our universe.
7. Gravitational: G = 6.6725985 x 10¯¹¹m³kg¯¹s¯².
8. EM: Elementary Charge: ε = 1.6021773349 x 10¯¹⁹C.
1 eV = 1.6021892 x 10¯¹⁹ J & 1.7826759 x 10¯³⁶ kg.
9. Week: Ratio: mp/ mₑ = 1836.15152; E=MC²
10. Strong: Atomic mass unit: amu = 1.6605655 x
10¯²⁷kg. E=MC²
Λ: = The expansion energy of the universe. This results
in a slow steady expansion of 70.4 +/- 1.4 kilometers per
second per megaparsec.
11.Fc = Equation.
12.(Agape) = Equation.
29
There Are Universal
Constants!
13.Speed of Light: C = 2.99792458 x 10⁸ m s¯¹.
14.Plank’s: h = 6.626075540 x 10 ¯³⁴ Js, or J/Hz. The
ratio of the smallest possible unit, (A quantum) of
energy, to its frequency: E = hv.
15.Dirac’s ħ = h/2π = 1.0545887 x 10 ¯³⁴ Js. This
derivative of Plank’s Constant is helpful in physics.
16.Plank’s Length: Lp = √(Għ/C³) = @ 10¯³⁵m. The
distance at which quantum mechanics must
compliment classical gravity.
17.Plank’s Time: Tp= √(Għ/C⁵) = @ 10¯⁴³s. How long it
takes a photon to travel Plank’s Length.
30
There Are Universal
Constants!
18.Plank’s : Mass: Mp = √(ħc/G) = @ 10¯⁸kg. The mass of
a particle whose Compton wavelength is equal to
Planks length.
19.Permittivity of vacuum: Eo = 8.85418782 x 10¯¹² c²/Jm.
F = Q₁Q₂/r²4πεₒ. A ratio of electric displacement, used
with insulators.
20.Permeability of vacuum: µₒ= 1/EoC² = 1.2566370614 x
10¯⁶ H/m = 4π x 10¯⁷ H m ¯¹. A ratio of magnetic flux.
21.Avogadro’s¹ NA = 6.022136736 x 10²³ mol¯¹. The
number of atoms or molecules in one mole of
substance.
There Are Universal
Constants!
22. Electron Mass at rest: mₑ = 9.109389754 x 10 ¯³¹ kg.
23.Proton Mass¹ at rest: mp = 1.6726485 x 10¯²⁷ kg.
24.Neutron Mass¹ at rest: mn = 1.6749286 x 10¯²⁷ kg.
25.Atomic mass Constant: mg = 1.6605402 x 10¯²⁷ kg.
26. Electron charge to mass ratio: ε/mₑ = 1.7588047 x
10¹¹ C/kg.
27.Bohr Radius: aₒ = 4πεₒh²/ mₑe² = 0.52917706 x 10¯¹⁰
m. A unit of length to measure atoms.
28. Faraday Constant: ₣ = Nₐε = 9.648530929 x 10⁴ C/mol.
The electric charge carried by one mole of electrons.
32
There Are Universal
Constants!
29.Coulomb Constant: C = k = 8.9875 x 10⁹ N x m²/C².
30.Fine-structure Constant: [μ₀c²/ 4π](e²ħc) = a¯' =
137.0360411.
31.Muon mass: m μ = 1.8825327 x 10¯²⁸ kg.
32.Ratio of muon mass to electron mass: 206.7686547.
33.Bohr magneton: μB = eħ/2mε
= 9.274078 x 10¯²⁴
J/T. A unit for measuring very small magnetism.
34.Molar Gas Constant: R = 8.31451070 JK¯¹ mol¯¹.
Relating to the relationship between
temperature, pressure, and volume of a gas.
There Are Universal
Constants!
35.Boltzmann constant: kB = 1.38065812 x 10¯²³ j/k¯¹.
The ratio of the gas constant to #20.
36. Gas Volume: Vm = 8.31441 J/mol K.
37. Nuclear magneton: μN = eħ/2mp = 5.0508248 x
10¯²⁷ J/T. Another unit for measuring very small
magnetism.
38.Free electron g factor: gₑ = 2 x 1.0011596567.
Relating to qualities of metals.
39. Classical electron radius: [μ₀c²/ 4π](e²/ mₑc²) = a³/ 4π
R∞.
34
There Are Universal
Constants!
40. Rydberg: R∞ = 1.0973731 x 10⁷m¯¹, = µₒ²me⁴c³/8h³.
Related to the atomic spectra and the binding energy
between an electron and a nucleon & related to other
Constants.
41. Loschmidt: L = NA /Vm = 2.68676323 x 10²⁵m¯³. The
number of particles per mm³ of an ideal gas at sea level.
42. Stefan-Boltzmann: σ = 5.6705119 x 10¯⁸ W m¯² K¯⁴.
Related to the total amount of radiated heat energy
excluding light. E = σT⁴.
43. Thomson cross section: (8/3)πrₑ² = σₑ = 0.665244833 x
10¯²⁸m².
44-227 for the 184 Elemental Constants, (Atomic weight &
35
number for the 92 natural elements) Etc. Ad infinitum.
There Are Universal
Elements!
• There are 92 natural elements, distinct
atoms, in our universe. They each have
their own distinct atomic number and their
own distinct atomic weight.
• Never more. Never less.
• No where more. No where less.
• Never different. No where different.
36
WEAK
E=MC²
• God uses the weak force to hold atoms together. It
is also an exactly accurate and eternal time
keeping device, (radioactive decay).
• Man uses the weak force to keep time in the
present, and to date artifacts from the past.
• A “type” & “token” of Paley’s Watch¹ is kept by the
U.S Navy in Colorado! It is Cesium 133, the “guts”
of an Atomic clock!
• Man also uses the weak force to generate
electricity, in medicine, and to make bombs.
• Shall we trust the watch and deny and/or ignore
the watchmaker?
37
STRONG E=MC²
• God starts with a variation of this most famous
equation: M = E/C².
• He takes gas, hydrogen, (Mass, “M”) and using an
invention far more ingenious then our Hydrogen
Bomb, His sun, He creates light & energy that
sustains life on this planet. (Man makes bombs.)
• God takes energy, (E) from His sun, and using
another ingenious invention, His plants, converts
sunlight, (E) back into mass, but not gasses, food
for all animals on earth. This application of E =
MC², is called: “Photosynthesis”!
38
LAMBDA Λ = @ 0.7
The expansion Force
of the universe.
• God uses Lambda to balance Gravity on a
scale larger than galaxies. This assures that
His kingdom will keep growing and never end,
expanding eternally at a rate of 70.4 +/- 1.4
kilometers per second per megaparsec.
• Λ, Discovered in 1998, has no discernible
effect on scales less than a billion light years!
• Man does not use this Force.
39
CHAOS
(Fc = Equation)
• Called the Constant of “Chaos,” it is in fact the
opposite. When all of the facts are known,
foreknowledge, (prediction, or prophecy) is possible.
• God uses this to accomplish His creating and exalting
purposes.
• Man plays with it like a toy, but he is starting to use
it to predict weather and natural disasters.
• This is essential to a true understanding of God’s
Sovereignty, omniscience & omnipotence.
• The resolution of God’s sovereignty vs. man’s free
will.
40
AGAPE
THE PURE LOVE OF GOD
• God uses it to bring to pass the immortality and
eternal life of man, to bring about man’s threefold salvation and exaltation, (sanctification).
• God uses this to accomplish His creating and
exalting purposes.
• The q.e.d. of the Atonement.
• Man uses it to share in God’s nature, to become
one with Him.
• Constant: =
• Equation:
41
1965. Feynman, Schwinger, &
Tomonaga (Dyson): Quantum
electrodynamics, q.e.d.
“If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge
were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed
on to the next generations of creatures, what
statement would contain the most information in
the fewest words? ‘All things are made of atomslittle particles that move around in perpetual
motion, attracting each other when they are a little
distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed
into one another.’” RICHARD FEYNMAN 1961¹.
Religion and Science:
Two Sides Of One Coin
A warm summer evening in Woolsthorpe,
Lincolnshire, England, 1665. Isaac Newton Jr. (1642 1727, noticed an apple fall from a tree. At arms length
the apple appeared about as big as the moon appeared
that evening¹. Newton wondered why the moon was not
also falling². His discoveries changed the world in many
ways! His discovery of the Gravitational Force ended the
age of materialism³ & randomness. There was more than
“atoms and the void.” God did not need myriad angels to
push the moon & planets around⁴. Similar natural laws
might govern everything, including mankind⁵.
Φ of Special Relativity
1. The Laws of physics are the same in all inertial
reference systems.
2. The speed of light in vacuum is always measured
to be @ 3*10⁸ m/s, & the measured value is
independent of the motion of the observer or of
the motion of the source of light.
3. Two events that are simultaneous in one
reference frame are in general not simultaneous
in a 2nd frame moving with respect to the 1st.
Simultaneity is not an absolute concept.
Φ of Special Relativity
Michelson-Morley Experiment
In 1887 they measured the speed of light as it
traveled 11 meters parallel to and again
perpendicular to the movement of the earth around
the sun @ 3*10⁴ m/s. By looking for shifts in the
fringe patterns they were able to measure very
accurately.
“Who can learn anything new and not find it a
shock?” John Wheeler
Φ of Special Relativity: Time
Δt =
Δ𝒕₀
𝟏
𝒗 2
𝒄
Where γ =
= γΔ𝒕₀.
𝟏
𝒗
𝒄
.
𝟏−( )²
According to a stationary observer, a moving clock runs
slower than an identical stationary clock by γ⁻¹ = time
dilation.
V
γ
0
1.00
.1c
1.01
.2c
1.02
.9c
2.29
Φ of Special Relativity: Length
1. 𝑳 =
𝑳₀
γ
. Where γ =
𝟏
.
𝒗
𝟏−( )²
𝒄
An observer at rest relative to an object measures its
length to be L₀. An observer moving with relative
speed v will find the object to be shorter than its rest
length by: √ 1-v²/c².
Φ of Special Relativity:
Momentum
1. Ρ = 𝒎𝒗 = γ𝒎₀ 𝒗.
Where m₀ is the mass & v the velocity.
At .75c, momentum = 50% greater than the
Newtonian results!
Φ of Special Relativity:
Mass & Speed
1. 𝒎 = γ𝒎₀ =
𝒎₀
𝟏−
.
𝒗 2
.
𝒄
Where M is the mass of the object as measured by
an observer moving with speed v &m₀ is the mass as
observed by one at rest, or the rest mass.
Mass varies wit speed at the rate of: 1- √1-v²/c².
This is why, given our current understanding, no
object with mass can achieve light speed. As: v ⇨
c, m ⇨ ∞!
Φ of Special Relativity:
Relativistic addition of velocities
In one dimensional motion: U = v + u’ / 1 + vu’/c².
Where u is the velocity as seen in one frame of
reference, u’ is the velocity of the same object in a
different frame of reference, & v is the relative velocity
of the two frames.
Suppose you are on a very long dark train traveling .8c,
driving a very fast motorcycle @ .5c, & you turn on your
lights?
1. What will be happening for you?
2. For an observer on the train?
3. For an observer outside the train at rest relative to all
of this motion?
Φ of Special Relativity:
Relativistic Energy
𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄² − m₀ c 2 .
Where KE = kinetic energy.
E = mc² = KE + m₀ c 2 .
E = m₀ c 2 /√ 1-v²/c².
Φ of General Relativity
1. Special relativity in 1905 included mass
equations, mass-energy equation, & time
dilation. It was extended to all of reality
generally in 1915.
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
• Max Plank at the German Physical Society December
1900: Atoms can only lose energy in discrete units,
in dichotomies rather than as a continuum.
• Plank saves the world from Maxwell’s ultraviolet
catastrophe!
• Quantum Φ arises from Plank’s discovery of quanta
of energy & includes Einstein’s photoelectric effect.
• Quantum Mechanics reconciles the particle-wave
duality.
• The momentum ρ, of a photon can be written
𝑬
𝒉𝒇
𝒉
as: ρ = = = . The de Broglie hypothesis
𝒄
𝒄
λ
states: Whenever a particle has a momentum ρ, its
motion is associated with a wave whose wavelength
𝒉
𝒉
is: λ = =
= 𝑲 + 𝑼 ψ = 𝑬ψ.*
ρ
𝒎𝒗
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
• Light is an electromagnetic wave that is actually
comprised of discrete packets of energy.
• Matter is comprised of discrete particles that exhibit a
wave-like nature.
• Everything: Light & matter has an intrinsic angular
momentum or “spin”, that can have only dichotomous
discrete values: 0 (rare) or either + or - ½ h/2π. (½
Plank’s Constant ) / 2π.
• “In accordance with the assumption herein proposed,
the radiant energy from a point source is not
distributed continuously throughout an increasing
larger region, but, instead, this energy consists of a
finite number of spatially localized energy quanta,
which, moving without subdividing, can only be
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
• One of the unique things about quantum Φ is that
it is very helpful to think about where something is
in five variables instead of four. One may or may
not call them dimensions. There is always the
time, T, height, X, length, Y & depth, Z.
• Additionally there is what something is doing or
how it is doing it: “spin”
• In reality: “On’s”, “Superstrings”, to atoms do not
sit still or travel in smooth straight lines. Φ use the
German word ”Eigen” to describe this unique
motion; Eigenvalues, Eigenstate, Eigenfuctions etc.
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
• Schrödinger’s equation is for quantum atomic Φ
what Newton’s 𝑭 = 𝑴 ∗ 𝑨. Is for classical Φ.
• In one dimension through time:
•
ħ2 𝜕 2 ψ
−
𝟐𝒎 𝜕𝒙2
+ 𝑽 𝒙, 𝒕 ψ =
𝒊ħ𝜕ψ
.
𝜕𝒕
• Where ħ = h/2π, h = Planks Constant, ψ = wave
function, V = external forces acting on the object, I
= √-1, ∂ = rate of change, t = time, x² = space.
• This also explains why atoms can absorb light only
at specific wavelengths.
• Instead of a miniature Solar system we actually
have interacting probability waves.
The Quantum electrodynamics,
q.e.d. equation
Lp = √(Għ/C³) = @ 10¯³⁵m, per Plank’s Time: Tp=
√(Għ/C⁵) = @ 10¯⁴³s.
𝜕φ
ħ2 2
𝒊ħ
=−
𝞩 φ + 𝑽φ.
𝜕𝒕
𝟐𝒎
Φ OF QUANTUM WAVE
FUNCTIONS.
• 𝑬 = ħω =
ħ2 𝒌2
𝟐𝒎
= 𝑬₀.
• ρΨ = ħ𝒌Ψ.
Where E = energy, ħ = Plank’s Constant /2π, k = wave
vector, m = mass, ρ = mass density & Ψ = wave
function.
Φ OF QUANTUM WAVE
FUNCTIONS.
Lp = √(Għ/C³) = @ 10¯³⁵m, per Plank’s Time:
Tp= √(Għ/C⁵) = @ 10¯⁴³s.
𝜕φ
ħ2 2
𝒊ħ
=−
𝞩 φ + 𝑽φ.
𝜕𝒕
𝟐𝒎
Φ OF QCD.
• “Quarks are slaves of tier own color charge…bound
like prisoners of a chain gang…no locksmith is
expert enough to break the gluon chains between
quarks. Quarks remain slaves forever.”
• Harold Fritzsch, Quarks, the stuff of matter, 1983.
THE MANY WORLDS THEORY
Hawking’s: 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔
Σ
.
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE MANY WORLDS THEORY
• 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 ≠ 𝜮
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒔
.
𝑯𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔
QUANTUM MECHANICS. GOD:
THE ESSENTIAL OBSERVER.
• 1932. Nobel Prize: Heisenberg: Quantum
mechanics.
• His solution to the need for an Essential Observer
made famous by Schrödinger's Cat, is to
acknowledge that this Observer is God.
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF TIME.
Φ OF PHOTON-ELECTRON
INTERACTION: q.e.d.
Consider what is really happening when you look outside through a window during daylight:
1. You can see things through the window.
2. You can see the window.
3. You can see things inside reflected in the window.
4. You can see light shinning through the window.
Now think about the paths of the individual photons
from the light source inside & from the sun that
eventually hit your eye.
1965. Nobel Prize: Feynman, Schwinger, & Tomonaga
MY PROBLEM
• My eyes are capable of seeing a single photon.
• My mind is capable of being both absolutely attentive
and infinitely patient as well as calculating the
relevant equations in real time.
• My spirit, with God’s help, is capable of adjusting the
magnetic attraction & other physical parameters of
my body so that I am neither blocked, nor struck, nor
otherwise hindered by physical objects, time & space.
• YET,
• I AM SO INATTENTIVE that I cannot watch individual
photons interacting with individual electrons in a glass
window.
• I AM SO IMPATIENT that I cannot watch glass in a
window flow.
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF LOOKING THROUGH A
WINDOW .
Consider what is really happening when you look outside through a window during daylight:
1. You can see things through the window.
2. You can see the window.
3. You can see things inside reflected in the window.
4. You can see light shinning through the window.
Now think about the paths of the individual photons
from the light source inside & from the sun that
eventually hit your eye.
1965. Nobel Prize: Feynman, Schwinger, & Tomonaga
(Dyson): Quantum electrodynamics, q.e.d.
•
•
•
•
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF BLUE SKIES.
WHY IS THE SKY BLUE?
WHY ARE CLOUDS WHITE?
WHAT MAKES THE SKY & CLOUDS GREY OR BLACK?
WHAT DID FIGENBAUM DISCOVER ABOUT CLOUDS
& WHAT DIFFERENCE DOES IT MAKE?
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF RED SUNSETS.
• WHY ARE SUNSETS RED?
• WHY ARE SUNSETS PARTICULARLY BEAUTIFUL OVER
OCEANS & DESERTS?
• WHY DO WE KEEP CALLING EARTHTURNS SUNSETS?
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF SUN’S GLORIES .
• WHAT CAUSES RAYS OF SUNSHINE?
• IS THIS AN EXAPMLY OF RAYLEIGH SCATTERING?
• HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE LIGHT TO GET TO THE
SURFACE OF THE SUN?
• HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE LIGHT THAT LEAVES THE
SUN TO REACH OUR EYES?
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF HALOES
AROUND SUN & MOON .
• WHAT CAUSES HALOES AROUND THE SUN, MOON,
& STREET LIGHTS?
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF RAINBOWS.
• WHAT HAPPENES BETWEEN 40° & 42°?
• WHAT HAPPENS > 42° & < 40°?
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF CRYSTAL
LIGHT & MUSIC .
• E = hv = h(v₂ - v₁) = E₂ - E₁
• E = E₀ sin 2πvt = E₀ sin(2πv₂t - 2πv₁t).
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF THE DOPPLER EFFECT .
• Measuring both the size & the age of the
universe.
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF BINARY STARS.
• WHAT DID NEWTON INVENT TO CLACULATE
WEIGHT ON A PLANET ORBITING A BINARY STAR?
• Third body equations:
• Type equation here.
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF NEUTRON STARS.
• WHAT IS THE LIFE CYCLE OF OUR SUN?
• WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT THE PAST & FUTURE
OF NEUTRON STARS?
• WILL OUR STAR BECOME A BLACK HOLE?
• WHAT DID HAWKING DISCOVER ABOUT BLACK
HOLES? WHAT ELEGANT EQUATION?
• WHAT DID DIRAC SAY ABOUT NON-ELEGANT
EQUATIONS?
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF BLACK HOLES.
•
•
•
•
•
Hawking’s equation: Type equation here.
Hawking radiation: Type equation here.
The half-life of a proton is @ 10³¹ years!
Black holes leak Hawking radiation very slowly!
Thanks to Hawking we can now see the complete
seasonal cycling of our observable universe. The
year begins in the spring at Sunrise, Creation. This
is Jan 1st 6:00.01 AM¹.
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
THE Φ OF BIG BANG COSMOLOGY.
• 1978. Kapitza, Penzias & Wilson: Low temperature
physics & Cosmic microwave background radiation
• Fred Hoyle: Denial isn’t only a river in Egypt.
• WHAT DO WE NOW KNOW ABOUT THE RECENT
SUDDEN CREATION?
• “Let there be light” = Photon decoupling.
• Missing Mass: Is it “Dark matter” or “Spiritual
Matter”? It isn’t protons.
• Missing Energy: Is it “Dark Energy” Or the Love of
God?
• WHAT DIFFERENCE DOES IT MAKE?
Φ OF QUANTUM MECHANICS.
Things aren't always what they seem:
1. What goes up must come down?
2. The Bigger they are, the harder & faster they
fall?
3. Does the sun rise in the East & set in the
West?
4. Is the chair you are sitting on solid & still?
5. Are you sitting on it at all?
6. Are your feet on the floor?
7. Is grass green?
But there are eternal, universal, unchanging,
objective Truths, (Facts)! Everywhere! Always!
79
ATOMS
• Ordinary matter is made of atoms which are
composed of electrons, protons, & neutrons.
• The nucleus contains between 99.945-99.975 of
the total mass of an atom.
• Atoms have an atomic number, Z = element =
protons in their nuclei.
• N = neutrons in their nuclei.
• Σ = The sum of N +Z = A = the mass number. There
are several mass numbers of each element. These
are called isotopes.
ATOMIC THEORY
If one enlarged the baseball until it was about the
size of the earth, an average Carbon-12 atom in that
baseball would be about the size of a baseball. If
one enlarged the now baseball sized atom again,
until it was about 2 miles, (3.5km.) in diameter, the
nucleus would be the size of a golf ball in the center
and the electrons would be grains of sand, two miles
away with nothing, that we know of, except the
forces, in between.
ATOMS
• Electrons almost balance out the protons to make
atoms electrically neutral in charge. (Electrons
appear to be without internal structure & are part
of the Lepton family within the particle zoo.)
• Most matter is slightly positively charged most of
the time. That is why we can sit on a chair, can’t
walk through walls & don’t fall through the floor &
the earth.
• Protons & neutrons each contain three quarks, (⁺⅔
+ ⁺⅔ + ⁻⅓ = 1).
• There are six kinds of quarks, two of which (up &
down) make protons & neutrons.
ATOMIC THEORY
• Werner Heisenberg 1927: Indeterminacy
⇨uncertainty principle : One cannot know both
the position (location)& the direction (velocity) of
subatomic particles: As we narrow the boundary
box to determine location, (even hypothetically,
even in our own imagination) we change the wave
patterns as they are now oscillating at a greater
𝒉
frequency, which changes velocity: ΔΕΔ𝒕 ≥ .
𝟒π
• Where ΔΕ is the uncertainty of a measurement of
energy & Δt is the time it takes to make the
measurement.
•
αψ
⎸ ⎸.
α𝒙
ELEMENTS
• Today there are at least 106 elements, 92 natural,
83 naturally occur on earth in significant
quantities. Berzelius published a table of atomic
weights (elements) in 1828. Mendeleev presented
a table which demonstrated that certain
properties of Elements repeated periodically. His
1st Periodic table was published in 1869.
• 2H₂ + 𝑂₂ ⇨ 2H₂ 𝑂₁ .
MOLECULES
• A Femtosecond (named in honor of Enrico Fermi) =
10⁻¹⁵ seconds. The minimum time for chemical
reactions at the atomic level is 10fs.
Femtochemistry concerns chemistry at the most
elemental level (where the most can happen)
between 10-10⁴fs.
NUCLEAR THEORY
• Most nuclei are @ spherical with an average radius:
• 𝒓 = 𝒓0 ₐ⅓.
• The decay Rate: 𝑹 = λ𝑵. Where N is the nuclei & λ
is the decay constant
• Half-life = 𝑻½ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑/λ .
NUCLEAR THEORY
RADIO-ACTIVE DECAY
• All atoms & subatomic particles are subject to
radio-active decay. “Stability” is relative;
whether best measured in millionths of a second
or trillions of trillions of years. The half-life of a
proton is @ 10³¹ years!
• Atoms decay both within elements, (isotopes) &
between elements.
• Thorium – 232 = half-life = 13.9 billion years, @ ⅘
of Earth’s Thorium is still here.
• U-235 = half-life 710 million years, only @ ¹/₇₀th
or the Earth’s U-235 still remains.
NUCLEAR THEORY
RADIO-ACTIVE DECAY
• Each Atom & atomic isotope has it’s own unique
half-life which when averaged to the gram is
definitional.
• Because there are so many & they vary so
greatly they can measure so accurately that they
define the second (Cesium 133) & can estimate
the age of our universe to ∓ 1%.
NUCLEAR THEORY
RADIO-ACTIVE DECAY
• Beta Decay:
• Carbon Dating: The daughter nucleus retains the
same number of nucleons but the charge number
increases by 1:
• ¹⁴₆C⇨¹⁴₇N + ⁰₋₁e + antineutrino .
• ¹²₇N⇨¹²₆C+⁰₁e + neutrino.
• Using carful analysis of Carbon decay we have
verified that the Old Testament has been faithfully
preserved for the last 2000 years!
NUCLEAR THEORY: FISSION
1938. Fermi: New radioactive elements & nuclear
reactions.
“Whatever Nature has in store for mankind,
unpleasant as it may be, men must accept, for
ignorance is never better than knowledge.” Enrico
Fermi 1938.
Leo Szilard (1898-1964) devised the idea of a nuclear
bomb at the beginning of WW II to save the world
(including his Jewish ethnicity) from Hitler’s tyranny.
REVENGE OF THE NRRDES
NERDS was originally spelled NRRDES. Dr. Seuss
healed the word & changed the spelling. We were
very socially awkward youths typified by Dr. Sheldon
Cooper on THE BIG BANG THEORY, though most have
are sexuality intact. We were the youngest on
campus and were notorious for untied shoes and
untucked shirts. We could not discuss how we
funded our education or the nature of our workstudy employment. NRRDE =
Nuclear-Rapid-Rupture-Definable-Event!
1. The
𝟐𝟑𝟓₉₂
NUCLEAR THEORY
FISSION
𝑼 nucleus captures a neutron.
2. The resulting
𝟐𝟑𝟔
₉₂ 𝑼 is extremely unstable &
lives for @ 10⁻¹² s. During this time it is highly
energetic and oscillates violently.
3. 𝑻𝒉𝒆
𝟐𝟑𝟔
₉₂ 𝑼 nucleus becomes highly distorted
as the repelling forces between protons create a
dumbbell shape.
4. The nucleus splits in to emitting several neutrons
& some energy in the process.
•
NUCLEAR THEORY
FISSION
𝟏
₀𝒏+
𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟐𝟑𝟓₉₂
𝑼⇰
𝟐𝟑𝟔
₉₂ 𝑼⇰𝑿 + 𝒀 + 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔.
₉₂ 𝑼 is extremely unstable & lives for @ 10⁻¹² s.
• X & Y are called fission fragments & there are many
possible combinations. One typical reaction of this
type is:
•
𝟏
₀𝒏+
𝟐𝟑𝟓₉₂
𝑼⇰ 𝟐𝟑𝟔 ₉₂ 𝑼⇰141₅₆ 𝑩𝒂 +92₃₆ 𝑲𝒓 + 𝟑1 ₀𝒏.
NUCLEAR THEORY: FISSION
THE MAGIC IS IN THE PACKING FRACTIONS!
If you do some math you will see that these numbers
are equal on both sides of the equations. Given the
Law of Conservation of Energy, this does not add up.
Where does all the energy come from?
In truth they are not whole numbers. 𝟐𝟑𝟖₉₂ 𝑼 is
actually 238.029₉₂U. When the equation is over, the
remainder has been converted into energy at the
𝑬
rate of 𝑴 = 2 𝒐𝒓 𝐄 = 𝐌𝐜². A very little mass
𝒄
times a large c² times a large number of atoms
equals a lot of energy!
REVENGE OF THE NRRDES
I know because I am one. I spent several years of my
life creating these actual equations. I would love to
share them with you! There is great elegance &
beauty in the actual equations!
But I’m pretty sure DHS would prefer if I did not.
Two sanitized versions look like:
140 ₅₄ 𝑿𝒆+94 ₃₈𝑺𝒓+𝟐¹₀𝒏.
𝟏
𝟐𝟑𝟓₉₂
𝟐𝟑𝟔
₀𝒏+
𝑼⇰
₉₂ 𝑼⇰
¹³² ₅₀ 𝑺𝒏+
101
₄₂ 𝑴𝒐+𝟑¹₀𝒏.
₀ 𝒏 + 𝟐𝟑𝟓₉₂ 𝑼⇰ 𝟐𝟑𝟔 ₉₂ 𝑼⇰
Two neutrons are released in the first event & three
in the second.
𝟏
NUCLEAR THEORY: FISSION
The energy released, Q per atom is the difference
between heavy nuclei @ 8.5 MeV & 7.6 MeV for the
intermediate daughter atoms. So subtracting we
have .9 MeV per rapid rupture event.
The energy released by one molecule of the octane
used in gasoline engines = @ one millionth the
energy of a single fission event!
NUCLEAR THEORY: FISSION
SINCE THE 1950’S THERE IS AN ENERGY SHORTAGE
BECAUSE IT REDISTRIBUTES MONEY & POWER FROM
THOSE WHO HAVE LESS TO THOSE WHO HAVE MORE.
THERE IS NO OTHER REASON!
𝟐𝟑𝟓₉₂
24
𝑴𝒆𝑽
𝟐𝟎𝟖
𝒏𝒖𝒍𝒄𝒆𝒖𝒔
1kg. of
𝑼 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 𝒏𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒊 =
=
𝟓. 𝟑𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎26 𝑴𝒆𝑽 =
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒇𝒐𝒓 @ 𝟑𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒀𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔!
NUCLEAR THEORY: FUSION
1. Hydrogen requires & 10⁷C° to fuse; hence stars
like our sun & atomic bombs to obtain Fusion
definition. They are much more efficient than
Fission events: 1 ₁H +1 ₁H ⇒2 ₁H +0 ₁e + v.
2
3
1
2. ₁H+ ₁H ⇒ ₂H𝒆 + γ.
3.
4.
11
3
H+
3
₂H𝒆 +
₂H𝒆 ⇒
3
⁴
₂H𝒆 ⇒
5. ²₁H + ³₁H
₂H𝒆 +
⁴
01
e + v, 𝒐𝒓
₂H𝒆 + 1 ₁H +1 ₁H.
⇒ ⁴₂He + ¹ₒn
(2.014102 u) + (3.016049 u) ⇒(4.002603 u) + (1.00865 u)
Δm = m₂H = m₃H – (mHe + mn) = 2.014102 u
+3.016049 u – (4.002603 u + 1.008665 u) = 0.01883 u
* c². Our Sun’s fusion: 4(¹₁H) ⇒ ⁴₂H + 2(+⁰₁ₑ).
ATOMS
• Ordinary matter is made of atoms which are
composed of electrons, protons, & neutrons.
• Atoms have an atomic number, Z = element =
protons in their nuclei.
• N = neutrons in their nuclei.
• Σ = The sum of N +Z = A = the mass number. There
are several mass numbers of each element. These
are called isotopes.
ATOMS
• Electrons almost balance out the protons to make
atoms electrically neutral in charge. (Electrons
appear to be without internal structure & are part
of the Lepton family within the particle zoo.)
• Most matter is slightly positively charged most of
the time. That is why we can sit on a chair, can’t
walk through walls & don’t fall through the floor &
the earth.
• Protons & neutrons each contain three quarks, (⁺⅔
+ ⁺⅔ + ⁻⅓ = 1).
• There are six kinds of quarks, two of which (up &
down) make protons & neutrons.
1969. Gell-Mann: The particle zoo,
(The Quark & the jaguar).
GELL-MAN’S PARTICLE ZOO
• Category: Particle: Symbol:
• Photons: Photons: γ
• Leptons: Electrons: e⁻
Neutrino (e): vₑ
muon: μ⁻
Neutrino (μ): vμ
Tau: τ¯
Neutrino (τ): vτ
Antiparticle:
Self
e⁺
¯vₑ
μ⁺
¯vμ
τ⁺
¯vτ
Rest mass¹:Lifetime
0
Stable²
0.511
Stable²
0(?)
Stable²
105.7 2.20*10¯⁶s.
0(?)
Stable²
1784 < 4 *10¯¹³s.
0(?)
Stable²
π¯
Self
139.6 2.60*10¯⁸s.
135.0 0.83*10¯¹⁶s.
• Hadrons:
– Mesons: Pion: π⁺
Pion: π⁰
GELL-MAN’S PARTICLE ZOO
• Category: Particle: Symbol: Antiparticle: Rest mass:
• Hadrons:
– Mesons: Pion: π⁰
Self
135.0
Kaon: K⁺
K¯
493.7
Kaon: K⁰s
K⁰s
497.7
Kaon: K⁰l
K⁰l
497.7
Eta: η⁰
Self
548.8
Baryons: Proton: p
¯p
938.3
Neutron: n
¯n
939.6
Lambda: Λ⁰
Λ⁰
1115.6
Sigma: Σ⁺
Σ¯
1189.4
Sigma: Σ⁰
Σ⁰
1192.5
Sigma: Σ⁻
Σ⁺
1197.3
Xi: Ξ⁰
Ξ⁰
1315
Xi: Ξ¯
Ξ⁺
1321
Omega: Ω¯
Ω⁺
1672
Lifetime
0.83*10¯¹⁶s.
1.24*10¯⁸s.
0.89*10¯¹⁰s.
5.2*10¯⁸s.
<10¯¹⁸s.
Stable²
920s.³
2.6*10¯¹⁰s.
0.80*10¯¹⁰s.
6*10¯²⁰s.
1.5*10¯¹⁰s.
2.9*10¯¹⁰s.
1.64*10¯¹⁰s.
.82*10¯¹⁰s.
ON’S & SUPPERSTRINGS
• Ed Witten discovered Superstrings in ____.
• I believe that All subatomic particles are composed
of Superstrings in Eigenstate. They are 4
dimensional massive objects about ____ in size.
• I believe that they in turn are composed of positive
& negative pairs of “ON”s . They are 4 dimensional
massive objects about ____ in size.
• Superstrings are described mathematically by “On
scheme equations”.
• They are a part of one “Grand Unified SuperSymmetry Superstring Field Theory, that I share
with Dr. Alexander Zazerski.
EIGENSTATES &
EIGENFUNCTIONS
• 𝑬 = ħω =
ħ2 𝒌2
𝟐𝒎
= 𝑬₀.
• ρΨ = ħ𝒌Ψ.
Where E = energy, ħ = Plank’s Constant /2π, k = wave
vector, m = mass, ρ = mass density & Ψ = wave
function.
THE MOST RESPECTED
MINDS OF ALL HUMANITY¹!
Abbas, Abelard, Abraham, Aquinas, Anselm, Brahms,
Barclays, Benedict, Boniface, Bonaventura, Bunyan,
Boethius, Buddha, Bede, Calvin, Columba, Constantine,
Cyprian, Cyril, Catherines, Cajetan, Clements, Davids,
Drake, Erasmus, Erigena, Euler, Fechner, Flew¹, Galen,
Gray, Gödel, Guttenberg, Herschel, Hus, Hippocrates,
Ignatius, Irenaeus, Jesus² John², Jung, Justin, Jerome, Kay,
Kepler, Loyola, Lavoisier, Luther, Maury, Madison, Moses,
Mendel, Methodius, Nanak, Orosius, Polycarp, Paul³
Patrick, Pelagius, Plato, Pythagoras, Peter, Quesnay,
Rheticus, Rayleigh, Rousseau, Socrates, Solomon, Sholes,
Stokes, Thales, Tyndale, Uthman, von Braun, Wycliffe,
Xenocrates, Youngs, Zoroaster, …
105
THE MOST RESPECTED
MINDS OF ALL HUMANITY!
(All of the Bishops, Buddhist Dali Lamas, Caliphs,
Hindu Sages & Popes) Anaximander, Archimedes,
Amphos, Augustine, Anaximenes, Aristotle, Arminius,
Bohr, Clausius, Dante, Eudoxos, Franklins, Galvani,
Humboldt, Iqbal, Jaspers, Kelvin, Lewis, Milton,
Nierenberg , Orm, Paganini, Quincy, Robinson, Seitz,
Singer, Simon, Smyth, Simons, Teller, Thomsons,
Udine, Vancouver, Vanderbilts, Vladimir, Watts,
Wigner, Williams, Websters, Waldo, Xerxes,
Xenophanes, Xavier, Xenophon, Yersin, Yongle, Yadin,
Yales, Zazerski, Zacharias, Zeiss, Zemlinsky, Zworykin…
106
THE MOST RESPECTED
MINDS OF ALL HUMANITY!
Abel, Adams*, Ampe`re, Am tem, Athanasius, Avogadro,
Bacon, Berkeley, Bragg, Bernoulli, Blackstone, Brewster,
Boyle, Chiefs Joseph & Seattle, Coulomb, Copernicus,
Cicero, Cooke, Cuvier, Descartes, da Vinci, Dukes de
Broglie, Euclid, Fahrenheit, Flemings, Fabriano, Faberge,
Fry, Fulton, Fox, Ford, Gama, Gandhi, Gauss, Koch, Hobbs,
Hooke, Harvard, Hudson Heisenberg, Huygens, Innocents,
Jastrow, Joule, Kant, Kierkegaard, Leibniz, Linnaeus, Locke
Mandela, Maimondes, Michelangelo, Mill, Marcel, Mores,
Newman, Nostradamus, Newton, Osmund, Priestley,
Pasteur, Pascal, Paley¹, Rubens, Qianlong, Stanfords,
Simpson, Sydenham, Shakespeare…
THE MOST RESPECTED
MINDS OF ALL HUMANITY!
Alcmaeon, Ambrose, Agassiz, Bells, Bruno, Budaeus, Buffon,
Cecil, Carnegie, Chesterton, Churchill, Cousteau, Columbus,
Celsius, Carver, Clovis, Dostoyevsky, Dickens, Dakin, Dirac,
Douglas, Dysons, Dostoyevsky, Edwards Faraday, Gist, Gosse,
Higgs, Hamilton, Handel, Hutton, Helmholtz, Hoyle, Ictinos,
Johannsen, Kagawa, King, Knox, Lincoln, Lin, Lister,
Leeuwenhoek, Laplace, Lyell, McDonnell, Mendelssohn,
Maxwell, Mozart, Nobel, Owen, Parry, Peacocke, Plantinga,
Pratt, Qin, Polkinghorne, Parsons, Ramanujan, Rembrandt,
Rockefeller, Ray, Rutherford, Smoot, Solzhenitsyn, Scotus,
Stannard, Spenser, Swift, Spener, Swinburne, Tolstoy, Tesla,
Tertullian, Ussher, Van Dykes, Volta, York, Washingtons,*
108
Ximenes, Xuanzang, Xuanzong, Zwingli…
THE MOST RESPECTED
MINDS OF ALL HUMANITY!
Abdullah, Albertus, Alexanders, Antiochus, Armstrong, Bach,
Aelfric, Babbage, Brown, Barth, Booth, Becquerel, Collins,
Chaucer, Chadwick, Dalton, Davy, Diesel, Dovorak, Einthoven,
Eliot, Ellis, Fleming, Florey, Galileo, Geiger, Graham,
Guillaume, Henrys, Hertz, Hills, Ibns, Hume, Irvings,
Johnsons, Jacobi, Kusch, Kapila, Kolbes, Kipling, Lawrence,
Livingstone, Legendre, Lemaitre, Mohammeds, Moody,
Medina, Mueller, Morse, Nernst, Nibley, Niebuhrs,
Oppenheimers, Onions, Origen, Proust Pachelbel, Paschal,
Penn, Pregl, Purcell, Quesnel, Ramseys, Seuss, Raphael,
Riemann, Sabatier, Spurgeon, Stephens, Smiths, Steno,
Soddy, Townsends, Tabari, Thielicke, Tolkein, Ulugh, Ulfilas,
Van Gogh, Virchow, Vivaldi, Wallace, Woolley, Wien, Walkers,
109
Wesleys, Nearly ad infinitum!
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
1. 1901. Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen: Discovery of x-rays.
2. 1902. Lorentz & Zeeman: The influence of
magnetism upon radiation.
3. 1903. Becquerel & Curies: radiation phenomenon.
4. 1904. Rayleigh: Argon & the densities of many gases.
5. 1905. Anton Von Lenard: Cathode Rays.
6. 1906. Thomson*: Conduction of electricity by gases.
7. 1907. Michelson*: Optical precision instruments &
meteorological investigations.
8. 1908.Lippmann: photographing interference
phenomenon.
9. 1909. Marconi & Braun: wireless telegraphy, (Radio).
10. 1910. Van der Waals: Equations for gasses & liquids.
110
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
11. 1911. Wien: Laws governing heat radiation.
12. 1912. Dalen: Automatic regulators for gas
accumulators for illuminating lighthouses & buoys.
13. 1913. Onnes: Low temperature → liquid helium.
14. 1914. Von Laue: Crystal diffraction.
15. 1915. Braggs: x-ray analysis of crystal structure.
16. 1916. Not awarded.
17. 1917. Barkla: x-rays of the elements.
18. 1918. Plank: Energy quanta.
19. 1919. Stark: Doppler effect in canal rays & the
splitting of spectral lines in electric fields.
20. 1920. Guillaume: precision measurements in
anomalies of nickel steel alloys.
111
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
21. 1921. Einstein*: Photoelectric effect¹.
22. 1922. Bohr: Structure of the atom & radiation.
23. 1923. Millakan: Elementary charge of electricity & the
photoelectric effect.
24. 1924. Siegbahn: X-ray spectroscopy.
25. 1925. Franck & Hertz: Laws governing the impact of the
electron on the atom.
26. 1926. Perrin: The discontinuous structure of matter.
27. 1927. Compton & Wilson: The Compton effect &
visualizing the paths of electrically charged particles.
28. 1928. Richardson: His Law.
29. 1929. de Broglie: The wave nature of electrons.
30. 1930. Chandrasekhara: Scattering of light & his effect.112
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
31. 1931. Not awarded.
32. 1932. Heisenberg: Quantum mechanics.
33. 1933. Schrödinger & Dirac: New productive forms of
atomic theory.
34. 1934. Not awarded.
35. 1935. Chadwick: The neutron.
36. 1936. Hess & Anderson: Cosmic radiation & the positron.
37. 1937. Davisson & Thomson: Crystal diffraction of electrons.
38. 1938. Fermi: New radioactive elements & nuclear reactions.
39. 1939. Lawrence: The cyclotron & artificial radioactive
elements.
40. 1940. Not awarded.
113
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
41. 1941. Not awarded.
42. 1942. Not awarded.
43. 1943. Stern: molecular ray method & magnetic
moment of the proton.
44. 1944. Rabi: Recording the magnetic properties of
atomic nuclei.
45. 1945. Pauli: His Exclusionary principle.
46. 1946. Bridgman: High pressure physics.
47. 1947. Appleton: Investigations of the upper
atmosphere.
48. 1948. Blackett: Wilson cloud chamber method.
49. 1949. Yukawa: Mesons & nuclear forces.
50. 1950 Powell: Photographing mesons.
114
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
51. 1951. Cockcroft & Walton: Transmutation of atomic
nuclei.
52. 1952. Block & Purcell: Nuclear magnetics.
53. 1953. Zernike: Phase contrast microscope.
54. 1954. Born: Quantum Mechanics, wave function.
55. 1955. Lamb & Kusch: The Hydrogen spectrum & the
magnetic moment of the electron.
56. 1956. Shockley, Bardeen & Brattain: The semiconductor
& transistors.
57. 1957. Yang & Lee: Parity laws of elementary particles.
58. 1958. Čerenkov, Frank & Tamm: The Čerenkov effect.
59. 1959. Segrē & Chamberlain: The antiproton.
115
60. 1960. Glaser: The Bubble chamber.
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
61.1961. Hofstadter & Mössbauer: Electron scattering &
nucleons; γ-rays & his effect.
62.1962. Landau: Liquid helium & condensed matter.
63.1963. Wigner, Mayer, & Jensen: Symmetry principles
of atomic nuclei & Nuclear shell structure.
64.1964. Townes, Basov, & Prochorov: Quantum
electronics → maser-laser principle oscillators &
amplifiers.
65.1965. Feynman, Schwinger, & Tomonaga (Dyson):
Quantum electrodynamics, q.e.d.
116
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
66. 1966. Kastler: Optical methodologies for
Hertzian resonance in atoms.
67. 1967. Bethe: Nuclear reactions → Energy
production in stars (Fusion).
68. 1968. Alvarez: Elementary particle resonance
states with hydrogen bubble chamber.
69. 1969. Gell-Mann: The particle zoo, (The Quark &
the jaguar).
70. 1970. Alvén & Néel: Magneto-hydrodynamics,
antiferromagnetism & ferrimagnetism →
applications in solid state physics.
117
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
71. 1971. Gabor: Holography.
72. 1972. Bardeen, Cooper & Schrieffer:
Superconductivity.
73. 1973. Esaki, Giaever, & Josephson: Tunneling in
super-current superconductors.
74. 1974. Hewish & Ryle Pulsars & radioastronomy.
75. 1975. Bohr, Mottelson & Rainwater: The
structure & motion or the atomic nucleus.
118
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
76. 1976. Richter & Ting: Particle discovery.
77. 1977. Anderson, Mott & Van Vleck: Electronic
structure of magnetic & disordered systems.
78. 1978. Kapitza, Penzias & Wilson: Low
temperature physics & Cosmic microwave
background radiation (Smoot).
79. 1979. Glashow, Salam & Weinberg: Electro-Weak
Unification.
80. 1980. Cronin & Fitch: Violation of fundamental
symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K
mesons.
119
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
81. 1981. Bloembergen, Schawlow & Siegbahn:
Laser & electron spectroscopy.
82. 1982. Wilson: How temperature & pressure
changes matter.
83. 1983. Chandrasekhar & Fowler: The evolution of
stars (his limit), Formation of chemical elements
in the universe.
84. 1984. Rubbia & der Meer: Particles W & Z; the
Weak interaction.
85. 1985. Klitzing: Quantized Hall resistance.
120
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
86. 1986. Binnig, Rohrer & Ruska: Electron
microscope & scanning-tunneling.
87. 1987. Bednorz & Müller: New class of
superconductors.
88. 1988. Lederman, Schwartz & Steinberg: Neutrino
beam & muon neutrino.
89. 1989. Dehmelt, Paul & Ramsey:
90. 1990. Friedman, Kendall & Taylor:
121
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
91. 1991. Pierre-Gilles de Gennes:
92. 1992. Charpak:
93. 1993. Hulse & Taylor:
94. 1994. Brockhouse & Shull:
95. 1995. Perl & Reines
96. 1996. Douglas, Osheroff & Richardson:
97. 1997. Chu, Cohen-Tannoudji & Phelps:
98. 1998. Laughin, Störmer & Tsul:
99. 1999. Hooft & Veltman:
100. 2000. Alferov, Kilby & Kroemer:
122
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
101. 2001. Cornell, Ketterie & Wieman:
102. 2002. Davis, Giacconi & Koshiba:
103. 2003. Abriksov, Ginzberg & Leggett:
104. 2004. Gross, Politzer & Wilczek:
105. 2005. Giauber, Hall & Hänsch:
106. 2006. Mather & Smoot: ( Mapping CMB).
107. 2007. Fert & Grünberg:
108. 2008. Kobayashi, Maskawa & Nambu:
109. 2009. Boyle, Kao & Smith: Fiber-optic cables & CCD
sensors, an imaging semiconductor circuit.
110. 2010.
123
WINNERS OF THE NOBEL
PRIZE IN PHYSICS
111. 2011.
112. 2012.
113. 2013. (Predictive)
114. 2014. (Predictive)
115. 2015. (Predictive)
116. 2016. (Predictive)
117. 2017. (Predictive)
118. 2018. (Predictive)
119. 2019. (Predictive)
120. 2020. (Predictive)
124
WEB SITES OF INTEREST
1. The Electronic Nobel Museum Project:
www.nobel.se/prize/index.html.
2. www.aip.org.
3. http://physics.nist.gov/euu/Constants/
CODA recommended values of the fundamental
physical constants
4. www.isinet.com/.
5. http://Webbook.nist.gov/.
6. www.nist.gov/srd/jperd.htm. Cumulative index
to the Journal of physical and Chemical Reference
Data.
7. Most college & university libraries.
125