SAMPLE ANSWER
Jan 09 – memory
1a
Definition
The length of time the memory store holds information
Transforming incoming information into a form that can be stored in
memory
Concept
A
C
1b. Environmental stimuli enters the sensory memory store via senses; ears, eyes, fingers,
tongue. If attention is paid to this information it is then transferred to STM (encodes
acoustically) maintenance rehearsal is required to keep the information in STM as it has
limited duration and capacity. To transfer material from short-term memory to long-term
memory extra, or elaborative rehearsal must take place (deeper form – semantically
encoded) information can then be retrieved from LTM (using retrieval loop) to STM when
needed.
1c. By reading the revision notes lots of times this is an example of maintenance rehearsal
and according to multi-store model of memory rehearsal keeps information in STM. If they’ve
read the magazine once but can remember , maintenance rehearsal hasn’t been used. Thus,
contradicting the MSM. As well as this, elaboration hasn’t been used for the information in
the magazine, but yet it has still been transferred to LTM. This also doesn’t provide support
for the idea that elaboration is the process involved in transferring material to STM.
2. Loftus and Palmer investigated how misleading (leading) questions can affect the accuracy
of EWT. They showed participants videos of a car accident to watch. They then gave them a
questionnaire containing one critical question; ‘about how fast were the cars going when
they hit?
One group was given this question. Other groups were given the same question but with a
different verb instead of hit: ‘contacted’, ‘collided’, ‘bumped’, ‘smashed’. Those with the verb
‘smashed’ estimated the speed to be 41.8mph (mean value) those with ‘hit’ only estimated
around 30mph. This shows that leading questions can affect the accuracy of EWT, they can
reduce it.
3a. Whether or not participants are asked to form a mental image to link the two words, or
whether they’re simply asked to memorise it.
3b. The number of words correctly recalled when participants are given a retrieval cue i.e. the
first word of each pair.
3c. Independent groups
3d. Order effects do not occur (whereas they do in repeated measures). If participants had
memorised the words in the morning by forming an image, practice effect will occur and they
would probably be better at the same task if asked to do it again in the afternoon.
3e. Reliability is all to do with consistency of results, therefore a psychologist could repeat
this study again with different participants to see if the results were similar to the first
experiment, or get another psychologist to replicate it and confirm the findings.
4. One strategy for memory improvement is the keyword method. This involves forming an
association with the word in an image-based form. For example, the name Jennie sounds like
‘jelly’. This might help improve the memory as Paivio suggested the dual-code hypothesis –
that concrete words can be encoded once in visual symbols and once in verbal, thus
improving memory for it. Elaboration has also taken place here which is important to be able
to remember information.
5a. The Cognitive Interview is composed of four components, not two like the standard
technique. There are: report everything, mental reinstatement, changing the order and
changing perspective. Standard interviewing technique doesn’t ask witnesses to mentally
recreate the original incident and contacts, whereas cognitive interview does. The idea that
there are different routes through memory means the order of events may be reversed and
perspective may be changed to look at it from another witness ‘view’. This is an aspect of
cognitive interview not standard interview, which involves asking questions about the
incident itself, not trying different routes into witness memory.
5b. Psychologists may inform participants of the potential risks involved in the research, prior
to participation. They may ask an ethics committee, who would weigh up the benefits of the
study against the potential costs to individuals, and then give them permission to conduct
study. They could give participants the right to withdraw before the study has begun as well
as during the study, or as a last resort, stop the study completely.
Question
1a
1b
1c
2
3a
3b
3c
3d
3e
4
5a
5b
Mark
2
6
4
4
2
2
1
2
1
3
4
3
Jan 2009 – Attachment
Try marking these answers. Actual marks on next page
6
a) Securely attached infants would be enthusiastic on reunion with mother, whereas
insecurely attached infants would either avoid mother or seek proximity then reject it.
Secure infants may show some separation anxiety although not likely to cry but would
be easily soothed. Insecure avoidant would be disinterested and insecure-resistant
would be deeply distressed.
b) Some children show secure attachment because their mothers are more responsive,
sensitive, accessible and interactive. Some show insecure attachment because their
mothers pay less attention to them and are less affectionate.
7
a) Willingness to explore – using the parent (mother) as a secure base from which to
explore and look at whether he functions independently. Reunion behaviour – how he
reacts towards mother when she returns home.
b) The researcher may rate the boy’s behaviour (like in the Strange Situation) in intensity
(between 1 and 7) 1 being completely disinterested in mothers return 7 being highly
enthusiastic
c) Pilot studies prevent investing lots of time and money in a flawed experiment. Allows
you to test aspect of the experiment’s design and know what to alter/modify for the
real thing
8
The NICHD longitudinal study starting in 1991 showed that children at age of 5 if attending
regular day care were more likely to be rated by adults as aggressive and disobedient. Those
in full time day-care were three times more likely to be claimed as ‘problem children’
displaying aggressive behaviours such as temper tantrums and arguing. Belsky et al (2007) did
a follow-up study at the end of the children’s primary school education and still maintained
there was a link between day care and increased aggressiveness. However, Sarah Friedman
pointed out that 83% of children spending 10-30 hours a week in day care did not show
increased aggressiveness. Other research also indicates that factors at home have a bigger
influence on aggressive behaviour than day-care does, e.g. mothers sensitivity. It has also
been pointed out that the effect isn’t causal. Day care doesn’t cause a higher level of
aggression, there is just a link between the two.
9
a) Secure attachment is the most common among all cultures, this showing cultural
similarity. However, there are higher percentages of insecure-avoidant for countries 2
and 3 than for country 1. But country 1 has a higher percentage of insecure resistant.
This shows that there are cultural differences with insecurely attached type.
b) It is very much rooted in American/Western Society/culture. E.g. in America, high
levels of separation anxiety is considered an insecure attachment behaviour, but in
Japan, they value dependence over independence, so parents don’t often leave their
children, meaning they are named as insecure in the Strange Situation but in Japanese
culture this would be seen as a secure attachment.
10
Bowlby’s theory, or evolutionary theory believes attachment is an innate biological and
adaptive behaviour. The infant has an innate drive to become attached due to its survival
value, and the caregiver is innately programmed to respond to child’s social releasers (e.g.
smiling, crying, baby face hypothesis) and protect the infant. Bowlby believed that a child
forms one specific attachment of special importance, this is known as monotropy. An
attachment with primary caregiver goes on to affect later socio-emotional development. The
secondary attachments form a hierarchy, as they differ in intensity. Secondary attachments
act as ‘safety nets’ – children missing secondary attachments have been shown to lack in
social skills later on in life. Bowlby also believed in something called the sensitivity
hypothesis, where the strength of attachment is based on the sensitivity of the mother’s
responsiveness to social releasers. He also believed in the internal working model – this is
where a child’s relationship with primary attachment figure, whether one of trust or
uncertainty creates expectations about what all relationships will be like. This leads to the
continuity hypothesis – the idea that early attachment affects behaviour in later childhood
and adulthood.
There are weaknesses of this theory. For example, Rutter et al argued that all attachments
are of equal importance, forming multiple attachment model. Kagen argued with the
‘temperament hypothesis’ that certain personality/temperament characteristics affect a
mother’s responsiveness. Thomas and Chen support this as they found 3 different
temperaments; easy, difficult and slow to warm up. These pieces of research suggest there
are alternative explanations to Bowlby’s theory.
There are strengths of Bowlby’s theory. Lorenz conducted a study on imprinting in goslings,
showing they are innately programmed to imprint, form an attachment with the first moving
object they see. Tronick supports the evolutionary theory with universality. An African tribe,
the Efe, where babies were breast fed and looked after by different women (although slept
with own mothers at night) showed that at 6 months babies had formed a primary
attachment. Thus supporting the idea of monotropy.
Harlow’s study on monkeys supports the idea of caregiver sensitivity, as monkeys formed a
one way attachment with an unresponsive mother, and were later maladjusted and poor
parents. This may lack validity though, as it was a test on non-human animals, we behave
differently as we are more influenced by higher order thinking and emotions.
Hodges and Tizard’s longitudinal study provides support for Bowlby’s sensitive period, the
idea that there is a limited window for attachment to occur. As children who were
institutionalised, then either restored to own homes or adopted still had problems with peers
in later life. This shows that there is a lot of evidence to support Bowlby’s theory that
attachment is adaptive and innate, therefore it provides an adequate explanation of
attachment.
MARKS
6a 4
6b 2
7a 0
7b 1
7c 2
8 6
9a 3
9b 3
10 AO1 5
AO2 4