Writing about Syntax
Writing About Syntax
 To say “the writer uses syntax to
convey meaning” is a meaningless
statement.
 You do not need to modify the word
syntax as you do the word diction.
For example you must say “religious
diction” or “charged diction” but to
say “interesting syntax” says nothing.
 When you comment on syntax, it is
often not going to take up a whole
paragraph. In fact you may not even
use the word syntax.
 Your discussion of syntax needs to be
related to how the writer executes a
sentence to convey meaning or place
emphasis, or create voice or tone.
The basic order of sentences
The order of the English sentence is for
the most part prescribed.
There must be a subject and verb
Word order cannot be random
ex: store went the to lady the.
How Writers Manipulate Sentences
How writers control and manipulate the
sentence is a strong determiner of
voice and imparts personality to the
writing.
Syntax encompasses word order,
sentence length, sentence focus, and
punctuation.
Word Order
Most sentences follow the subject-verbobject/complement pattern
He was carrying a large suitcase.
He gave us his permission.
Word Order
Subject-Verb Complement Pattern
They elected Mary chairwoman.
You made her angry.
New York is our largest city.
This book is dull.
Changing Normal Word Order
Authors shift between conformity and
nonconformity, preventing reader
complacency without using unusual
sentence structure to the point of
distraction.
This is not to say that we write, “He
changed the word order to wake us
up” !!!!
Examples
 Inverting subject and verb
I am happy to see you. VS.
Am I ever happy to see you!
 Placing a complement at the beginning of a sentence:
He is without a doubt hungry VS.
Hungry, without a doubt, he is.
 Placing an object in front of a verb
I like Sara but not Penelope VS.
Sara I like – not Penelope.
Ode to Pizza
I ate the best
pepperoni pizza last night.
The pizza was nice and hot
when I opened the box.
Each slice had a lot of
cheese. The crust was
chewy and fresh. It was
delicious!
Sentence Length
Writers vary sentence length to forestall
boredom and control emphasis. A
short sentence following a much
longer sentence shifts the reader’s
attention, which emphasizes the
meaning and importance of the
short sentence.
Works from different historical periods
might do the opposite.
“The Fanatics” –
Eric Hoffer
When the moment is ripe, only the fanatic can hatch
a genuine mass movement. Without him the
disaffection engendered by militant men of words
remains undirected and can vent itself only in
pointless and easily suppressed disorders. Without
him, the initiated reforms, even when drastic, leave
the old way of life unchanged, and any change in
government usually amounts to no more than a
transfer of power from one set of men of action to
another. Without him there can perhaps be no new
beginning.
You try it…
Of all the instruments of modern
technology, only the computer
brings people closer together.
Add two long sentences which
amplify the first sentence.
Add one final short sentence to
emphasize the first sentence.
Examples
In Bradbury’s description of the fire, his
syntax changes from the short,
robotic sounding sentences that
indicate order to long, racing
sentences that reflect the panic of the
house as it is engulfed by fire. Clearly
technology cannot perfectly control
the world.
* STYLE/FORM = CONVEY MEANING/IDEA
Sentence Focus
Sentence focus deals with variation and
emphasis among sentences. Main
ideas are usually in the main clause
positions. Main clause placement may
vary according to the type of tension
the writer wants to create.
Periodic Sentences
Writers create syntactic tension by
withholding syntactic closure until the
end of the sentence.
“As long as we ignore our children and
refuse to dedicate the necessary time
and money to their care, we will fail
to solve the problem of school
violence.”
Example
Darwin uses periodic sentence structure
as he carefully approaches his hostile
audience. Just as he presents his
evidence before he declares his
thesis, he places modifiers in each
sentence before declaring his main
points.
Loose/Cumulative Sentences
Sentences that reach syntactical closure
early relieve tension and allow the
reader to explore the rest of the
sentence without urgency.
“We will fail to solve the problem of
school violence as long as we ignore
our children and refuse to dedicate
the necessary time and money to
their care.”
Does feeling or meaning
change?
Periodic:
“As long as we ignore
our children and refuse
to dedicate the
necessary time and
money to their care, we
will fail to solve the
problem of school
violence.”
Loose:
“We will fail to solve the
problem of school
violence as long as we
ignore our children and
refuse to dedicate the
necessary time and
money to their care.”
Repetition
Repetition is another way that writers
achieve sentence focus.
Purposeful repetition of a word, phrase,
or clause emphasizes the repeated
structure and focuses the reader’s
attention to its meaning.
Repetition of word, structure, anaphora
Punctuation
Punctuation is used to reinforce
meaning, construct effect, and
express the writer’s voice.
Of particular interest in shaping voice
are the semicolon, colon, and dash.
PUNCTUATION
MATTERS
A woman without her man is nothing.
A woman, without her man, is nothing.
A woman: without her, man is nothing.
;;;;;; semicolon ;;;;;;
The semicolon gives equal weight to two
or more independent clauses in a
sentence.
The resulting balance reinforces parallel
ideas and imparts equal importance
to both (or all) of the clauses.
::::: colons :::::
Colons direct the reader’s attention to
the words that follow. They can also
be used between independent clauses
if the second summarizes or explains
the first.
---- dash ---A dash marks a sudden change in
thought or tone, sets off a brief
summary, or sets off a parenthetical
part of the sentence.
The dash often conveys a casual tone.
Types of Sentences
 Simple
 Complex
 Compound
 Compound Complex
Simple
One independent clause and no
subordinate clause.
Great literature stirs the imagination.
Complex
One independent clause and at least
one subordinate clause.
Great literature, which stirs the
imagination, also challenges the
intellect.
Compound
Two or more independent clauses but
no subordinate clauses.
Great literature stirs the imagination;
moreover, it challenges the intellect.
Compound Complex Sentences
Contains two or more independent
clauses and at least one subordinate
clause.
Great literature, which challenges the
intellect, is sometimes difficult, but it
is also rewarding.
Sentences Classified by Purpose
There are four kinds of sentence:




Declarative
Imperative
Interrogative
Exclamatory
Declarative
Makes a statement
Homes should be made safer for the
elderly.
Imperative
Gives a command or makes a request
Close that book and pay attention.
Interrogative
Asks a question
What was the name of that song?
Exclamatory
Expresses strong feeling
How happy I am to know that you will
all pass this AP exam!
Terms to Describe Syntax
Asyndeton
A writing style that omits conjunctions
between words, phrases, or clauses
 Asyndeton adds speed and rhythm to
the words.
 It leaves an impression that the list is
not complete and adds drama
Example:
 Compare: “I play hockey, baseball
and football.” vs. “I play hockey,
baseball, football.”
 Compare: She’s a genius and a star.
with She’s a genius, a star.
Polysyndeton
The repetition of conjunctions such as “and”, “or”,
“for” and “but” in close succession, especially when
most of them could be replaced with a comma.
 The repetition of the conjunctions adds power to
the other words.
 Polysyndeton slows down the pace of the
sentence.
 It can add rhythm and cadence to a sentence or
series of sentences.
 There is a feeling that the ideas are being built
up.
Compare:
“He is brave and honest and good and
decent.”
vs.
“He is brave, honest, good and decent.”
Antimetabole
 Repetition of the same words or phrases
in reverse order.
 The focus of the second clause is different
from the focus in the first clause because
of the reversed word order.
 The reversal of words is often unexpected
and thought-provoking, getting the
audience to consider things from a
different angle.
The key message is usually in the second
clause or sentence. Antimetabole is
frequently used to motivate the audience.
Examples:
 “One for all and all for one!”
 “When the going gets tough, the
tough get going.”

— Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr
Epistrophe
Repetition of a word or phrase at the end
of successive sentences or clauses.
Effect:
 Because the emphasis is on the last
word(s) of a series of sentences or
phrases, epistrophe can be very
dramatic.
 It is particularly effective when one
wishes to emphasize a concept, idea or
situation. Note, for example, the
concepts emphasized in the quotes
below: people; problems; moments;
domination; togetherness; ability.
 Repetition makes the lines memorable.
 The speaker’s words have rhythm and
cadence.
 Epistrophe is the opposite of anaphora
 As is the case with anaphora, speakers
should be careful not to overuse
epistrophe.
 Epistrophe is effective even when the
words differ slightly; for example, when
they are singular and plural as in the
quote from Bill Gates below.
 Americans have responded with a simple creed
that sums up the spirit of a people: Yes we can. It
was a creed written into the founding documents
that declared the destiny of a nation: Yes we can.
It was whispered by slaves and abolitionists as
they blazed a trail toward freedom through the
darkest of nights: Yes we can. It was sung by
immigrants as they struck out from distant shores
and pioneers who pushed westward against an
unforgiving wilderness: Yes we can.“
— Barack Obama, New Hampshire primary,
8 January 2008
“Market forces cannot educate us or equip us for this world of rapid
technological and economic change. We must do it together. We
cannot buy our way to a safe society. We must work for it together.
We cannot purchase an option on whether we grow old. We must plan
for it together. We can’t protect the ordinary against the abuse of
power by leaving them to it; we must protect each other. That is our
insight. A belief in society. Working together.”
— Tony Blair, Blackpool, 4 October 1994
“I left campus knowing little about the millions of young people cheated
out of educational opportunities here in this country. And I knew
nothing about the millions of people living in unspeakable poverty and
disease in developing countries.”
— Bill Gates, Harvard University address, 7 June 2007
Anaphora
Repetition of a word or phrase at the
beginning of successive sentences or
clauses.
Effect:
*Key words or ideas are emphasized, often
with great emotional pull.
*Repetition makes the line memorable.
*The speaker’s words have rhythm and
cadence.
“We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the
seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing
confidence and growing strength in the air, we
shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be.
We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight
on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the
fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the
hills …”
— Winston Churchill, House of Commons, London,
England, 4 June 1940
Zeugma
The use of a word to modify or govern two or
more words when it is appropriate to only one of
them or is appropriate to each but in a different
way. Creates verbal puns, humor and wordplay.
Examples: to wage war and peace
On his fishing trip, he caught three trout and a
cold.
“Mr. Jones took his coat and his leave”