Counseling 5670D
Dr. Cyndi Matthews
Who was Vygotsky?
 Vygotsky was born in Western Russia. He later
attended the University of Moscow, where he earned a
degree in law.
 Although Vygtosky had no formal training in
psychology, he began a career as a psychologist and his
work focused primarily on education and children.
 In 1934, he died of tuberculosis. The government
quashed most of his ideas and research, but his ideas
were mainly kept alive by his students.
Key Principles to Consider
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0BX2ynEqLL4 – relate to counseling
 Vygotsky believed that learning precedes development.
 As Vygotsky said, "learning is a necessary and universal
aspect of the process of developing culturally organized,
specifically human psychological function" (1978, p. 90)
 The concept of social context is focal to Vygotsky’s theory.
 His theory revolved around social learning and
interactions with others as a means of learning.
 Three essential elements: ontogeny (individual physical
development; phylogeny (human evolution); social &
cultural conditions (e.g. teen learning Shakespeare p. 85)
Psychological Cell
 Usually defined in human psychology as word meaning
the smallest unit of conscious process
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Speech is important as the psychological cell because it is a
tool which incorporates
 (1)Social/Cultural data,
 (2)Constitutes “Tool Use” which is an important part of
human evolution,
 (3)Relies on physical development as it mediates the
construction of conscious thought .
 Later expanded to include speech, desires, needs,
interests, & emotions.
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This is significant because it identifies psychology as a study
of volition, and motivational factors are seen as a key part of
the psychological cell.
(Douthit, 2008)
Philosophers and Their Effects on
Human Development Thought
 Marx- “Human essence is no abstraction inherent in each individual. In
its reality it is the ensemble of the social relations (Marx, 1845/1978b,
p.145).
 Human development is best understood in the context of social
interactions
 Hegel’s idea of dialectics
 Dialectics- the evolution of a society as new emergent ideas conflict
with traditionally held ideas and views (disequilibrium)
 In the context of human development, dialectics refers to the process
by which individuals attempt to adjust to aspects of their
environment, while attempting to change other elements of
environment.
 Engels
 The human adjustment to the use of tools, requires new power
relationships among individuals
 Tools constitute human history, because they are the mediator
between production and social transformation
 (Douthit, 2008)
What is the Zone of Proximal
Development?
 “The distance between the actual developmental
level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problems solving under adult
guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86)
Zone of Proximal Development
Scaffolding –
building between
what I can do and
what I can’t do
What are the Implications of
Zone of Proximal Development?
 The implication of teachers/mentors is
important because it establishes more
experienced members of the profession as an
essential environmental element in cognitive
development.
 The concept of pushing a person just beyond
their ability is one which has utility not only in
education, but also in counseling.
 The concept of understanding where the client is
developmentally
 (Douthit, 2008)
What is Meta-Cognition?
 Definition: When the mind thinks about how it is
thinking.
 The process begins when conflicting/new ideas are
presented in the mind creating a conflict which
must be resolved (cognitive
dissonance/disequilibrium)
 When the conflict is resolved the mind is able to
discern the difference in its thought processes.
What is the Teachers Role in
Metacognition?
 The education process is not simply
information transfer, but is a transactional
learning process
 Scaffolding
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The process of making external
consciousness available to the learner
The teacher models the method of thinking
about new ideas
Learning occurs when the learner is able to
assimilate the metacognitive process
 Sharing example p. 94 Kraus
The Role of Speech – “The Tool”
What is Egocentric Speech?
 Definition: Child speaking to self without
communicative function
 Serves as precursor to problem solving
 Evolves into Inner Speech which directs the
process of thinking.
 (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010)
How does Private Speech Develop to
Inner Speech?
 At 3 yo. Children develop a running commentary
which is associated with directing thoughts and
focusing.
 At 6 yo. Children’s private speech is subdued,
perhaps only capturing general idea or being
subvocalized.
 At 8 yo. Children’s egocentric speech “goes
underground” and becomes inner speech, which
serves a self-regulatory function.
 Inner speech becomes “The Tool” – the means of
communicating, solving problems, understanding
culture, framing issues, etc.
The Case of Russell p. 101
 Who is Russell?
 Step 1: Current Concerns
 Step 2: Boost Metacognitive Insight (teaching identity
development models)
 Step 3: Explore personal trajectory – state of
disequilibrium
 Step 4: Resolution – counselor utilizing scaffolding
Who was Piaget?
 Constructivist Theory
 Knowledge is constructed by an individual
 Stimuli/Facts are learned and stored by the process
of adaptation.
 Children/Adults are active participants in the
learning process
 What is the “The American Question?”
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Speed up development
Piaget’s thoughts?
(Broderick & Blewitt, 2010)
What are Schemas?
 Categories of knowledge which help individuals to
understand and interpret the world.
 They are based on the interactions and
assimilation of experiences.
 May take the form of rules; (e.g. the only dogs I
have seen are small and furry; thus all dogs are
small and furry).
Adaptation
 The process by which children take in new
information and develop schemas.
 Two Types: Assimilation and Accommodation
What is Assimilation?
Assimilation?
 The process of taking in new information into a
previously existing schema.
 Over the course of the lifespan, schemas become
more complex due to the stream of information.
 Example: A child at 3 knows trees are tall and have
bark. An older individual has more knowledge
about trees (i.e. tall, they grow larger over time,
they have rings, they have leaves, etc….)
What is Accommodation?
Accommodation?
 Changing or altering schemas due to new
information.
 Example: a child knows that dogs are furry and
have four legs; A child sees a raccoon and calls it a
dog. The child is corrected and must now adjust
his schema about what dogs are, this is
accommodation.
What is the significance?
 Knowledge is constructed
 Children instinctively are motivated to learn and make
sense
 Learning is organized – develops in stages – although
at different rates in different domains
Piaget’s Research
 What is the difficulty of research on infant
cognitive development?
 lack of coherent and meaningful speech
 Early infant research focused on motor skill
interactions with the environment and stimuli
 Piaget’s infant research was primarily conducted
with his own children
(Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).
Sensori-Motor Stage (0-2)
 Object Concepts
 Memory
 Intentionality
Object Concept
 Objects have properties that
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an stimulate all of their
senses.
Object Permanence - the
sustained existence of objects
out of sensory perception
(occurs roughly at 8-12 mo)
http://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=BFUInSY2CeY
Representational Thought:
the ability to think about
things not currently
stimulating our senses
https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8
What is Memory?
Recognition vs. Recall?
 Recognition: Differentiation between new experiences
and experiences that have occurred before.
 Infants 3 mo. and older can recognize a stimulus when it
presented and then re-presented a month later.
 Recall: The ability to bring to mind an experience that
happened in the past.
 Delayed-Imitation is a sign of developed recall; Can
occur as early as 8 mo to sometime in the infant’s 2nd
year.
 This mental process is what makes modeling possible –
mirror neurons? (same neurons fire when watching as
doing)
 Separation Anxiety generally begins to occur at 8 mo.,
due to object permanence and increasing recall ability.
Intentions
 Early infants behaviors are largely
instinctual/reflexive and not intentional
 If an infants actions produce an interesting event, it
will often be repeated. This serves a precursor to
intentionality (operant conditioning)
 Means-end Behavior-beginning of goal orient
behavior. (e.g. removing barriers to reach a
stimulus) (8-12 mo.)
Intentionality continued
 At 12-18 months infants begin utilizing a trial &
error approach (toy behind screen)
 At 24 months problem solving becomes more
sophisticated.
 Intentionality in communication is evident by 8-12
months (child – father – toy)
 More intention than we knew at 6 months old –
reaching experiments
Pre-operational stage (2-6)
 Thinking – symbols
 Lack of conservation
What are Symbols?
 Symbols refer to representations that are stand-ins
for an actual object (i.e. words used to ask for milk
vs. actual milk; dressing up and pretending to be a
firefighter vs. an actual firefighter).
 Symbolic Artifacts: symbols that physically
represent what they stand for (e.g. a map or model
– age 3)

Symbolic Artifacts often present more problems for
a child than more abstract symbols (i.e. words).
Characteristics of Pre-Operational
Thought (2-7 ages)
 Conservation: Mental processes that “Conserve” the
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number or amount of something regardless of
presentation
Centration : pre-operational thought tends to be
focused on one characteristic at a time.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLj0IZFLKvg
Egocentrism: the idea that others also share your
perspective (both physically/literally and
emotionally/figuratively).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0
Decentrism – taking into account
multiple views
What are the Implications of
Centrism, Egocentrism?
 P. 91 – what others know in recipes descriptions
 Miss deeper meaning
 Can only look at one factor
Concrete Operational (7-11)
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Development of clear, and logical thought when applied
to the concrete world
Logic:
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Children at this stage excel at inductive logic. (Inductive logic:
single experience -> general principle)
Children at this stage have difficulty with deductive logic
(Deductive logic: general principle -> single experience)
The principle of conservation is now attained.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJyuy4B2aKU
Reversibility
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one change reverses the effect of the other change.
Formal Operations (12+)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM
 Capacity for ratio, algebraic functions, and purely
abstract functions.
 Ability to form logic/hypothesis based on nonconcrete information;
 hypothetico-deductive reasoning
 Possible to consider multiple hypothesis and
outcomes
Language Development
See Chart p. 95
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FreXRAhTQs
 Phonology: the sound system of a language.
 Babbling begins at 6 mo.
 9mo. Babbling is matched to native language.
 At 2 yo. Children can speak but have difficulty with
voicing (d vs. t), (using vocal chords to
emphasize/soften/harden phonic sounds)
 By 3 yo. Language is understandable
 By 4 yo. Child should be able to be understood, if
not speech evaluation may be necessary.
 (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010)
Semantics
 Semantics-which words and word parts express
specific meanings
 18-24 mo. Children begin learning words very
rapidly (vocabulary spurt)
 At age 5, approx 15,000 words are known (9-10
words per day)
 Children have difficult with the arbitrary nature of
words and may object to different names.
Synatx
 Syntax-the linking of words into meaningful
phrases/sentences.
 Learn and implement complex grammar
 P. 95 examples
Pragmatics
 Pragmatics- ability to craft a story that conveys a
message and takes into account the listeners needs
 By 2-3 yo. Can craft a narrative but is largely
uninformative.
 As perspective taking develops, so do narratives.
So the Questions are:
 What is the advantage of having a larger vocabulary?
 How much exposure to language is necessary?
 What particular language experiences facilitate
learning?
Kegan’s Subject - Object Theory?
 Kegan – stage theory that extends Piagetian thinking
 Subject-those things that people identify with, are
tied to, or embedded in (that control us)
 Object- those things that persons reflect on, are
responsible for, relate to, or take control of.
 (Eriksen, 2008)
 For you – to watch later
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xUOapqI3rzs
Stage
Description
Stage 0 (Infancy to 2)
•Incorporative stage
•Subject to: reflexes
•Object: nothing
Stage 1 (2-7 Years)
•Impulsive stage
•Subject to: impulses, perceptions
•Object: reflexes
Stage 2 (8-11+ years)
•Imperial stage
•Subject to : needs, interests, desires
•Object: impulses, perceptions
Stage 3 (after age 20)
•Interpersonal stage
•Subject to: interpersonal relationships and rules
•Object: needs, interests, desires
Stage 4 (reached by 20-30% adults)
•Institutional stage
•Subject: institutions, career positions, systems which
they operate
•Object: interpersonal relationships, mutuality, roles
Stage 5 (not earlier than 40)
•Inter-individual stage
•Subject: none
•Object: authorship, identity, ideology, institutions,
systems
Elements of Transformation
 Matching - acknowledging the dominant method
of knowing (understanding the stage they are at –
acknowledging it)
 Challenging - relating to them from the next
potential level of knowing. (Vgotsky might say
“scaffolding”)
Incorporative Balance 0-2
 Infants view the environment as an extension of
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themselves (lack awareness of the “other” or
“object”)
Aware primarily of their own needs
Matching: Holding, providing physical contact,
providing safety, establishing eye contact.
Challenging - through timely differentiation.
Slowly begin to allow the child to meet their own
needs and acknowledge independence.
(Eriksen, 2008)
Impulsive Balance (2-7)
 Subject to impulsivity
 Active fantasy life
 Egocentrism in attributing impulses to
family
 Matching: allow child to receive love
and un-favored parents must be
sympathetic of their connection with
other parent.
 Challenging: Set limits to
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Facilitate boundaries between
themselves & parents
Create boundaries between the child
and their impulses
Establish Self-Regulation
Imperial Balance (8-11)
 Their impulses become object which allows greater
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degree of self-control
Subject are their desires/needs/interest, which
develop into self-concept.
Beginning of developing peer groups
Match: clearly defined expectations and
consequences
Challenge: attend to social norms and other’s
feelings
Interpersonal Balance
 Have capacity for insight and action, perspective
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taking.
Subject is the individuals relationship with others and
social rules/mores
Object is needs, thus a further sophistication of needs
achievement
Match: supporting their ability to be in relationship
with others, express feeling, be intuitive
Challenge: focus on individual needs and thoughts
about a topic.
Institutional Balance
 Relationships and values are object – under their
control (family values, structure of family,
structure of relationships)
 Institutions are subject (embedded –
religion/organizations)
 Matching: supporting individual ideas, reflectively
deciding, setting boundaries, and being
independent.
 Challenging: focusing the client on higher
principles.
Inter-individual Balance.
 Moderation in polar thinking
 Process not Product is valued
 Ambiguity tolerated and
preferred  Become less certain
 The “Ghandi Stage”
Value of Kegan Model?
 How do you see this model being used?
 Where could you see it being used?
 Case p. 144, situations p. 141 supervisee