United States Foreign Policy,
1865 -1903
The United States Projects Its
Influence in the Pacific and Asia
COMMODORE MATTHEW PERRY, OPENING JAPAN BY
FORCING THEM TO SIGN THE TREATY OF KANAGAWA

The United States interest in the Pacific was
not a new revelation at the turn of the
century. Like other European nations, the US
had sought to find a “Northwest Passage”
and wanted to facilitate trade with Asia –
particularly China, Japan, and India.

For centuries, Japan had remained an
isolationist society. They refused to trade
with nations outside of their islands, and had
no relationship with the United States.

In order to gain economic markets, the
United States sought to trade throughout
Asia. Commodore Matthew Perry forced
Japan to trade with others with the Treaty of
Kanagawa in the early 1850s – by threat of
armed intervention.
THE PURCHASE OF ALASKA, 1867
ALASKA
Purchased from Russia, which claimed the
territory as a colony and had fur trading outposts
along the Western coast of present day Canada.
US Secretary of State William Seward purchased
the area in 1867 for $7.2 Million, or a little more
than 2 cents an acre.
The purchase was ridiculed as a waste of tax
dollars at the time, and assigned nicknames like:
•“Seward’s
Folly”
•“Seward’s
Icebox”
•“Polar
Bear Garden”
Alaska, fortunately for William Seward, was found
to be rich in natural resources including gold, oil,
fishing, and lumber.The Klondike Gold Rush of
the 1890s was a huge migration through the
Alaska Territory and the Yukon River valley.
ISOLATIONISM
Isolationism is a national policy of noninvolvement in world affairs. In other words, a
nation decided to remain neutral and
uninterested in affairs outside its own boundaries.
They concentrate on their own concerns, their
own economy, and their own society, but they do
not interact with other nations through trade,
military involvement, treaties, or alliances. To
categorize the United States foreign policy as
“isolationist” during the 18th and 19th Centuries
would be to willfully misinterpret history. The
United States was both expansionist and
imperialist throughout the period, taking over
Native American lands, fighting a war of
aggression against Mexico, and posturing towards
war with England on several occasions in order
to secure territorial rights. That the nation was
isolationist in its interactions with Europe is a much
more readily supported claim!
IMPERIALISM
When a larger, stronger nation attempts to
take over a smaller, weaker nation, either
economically, or politically. Anytime a
nation goes to war to gain land, it can be
called “expansionist imperialism.” Economic
imperialism can take place as well. For
example, if a wealthy, powerful nation forces
the citizens of a smaller, weaker nation to
work for them, or attempts to take over all
of the smaller nation’s natural resources
(like oil, or staple crops) then it called
economic imperialism. The more
transparent examples of imperialism in
American history would be the Mexican
Cession or the colonization of the
Philippines; the more subtle “economic”
imperialism is reflected in the takeover of
Cuba’s economy following the SpanishAmerican War or the proposed “Open
Door Policy” in China.
ALFRED THAYER MAHAN’S THE INFLUENCE OF SEA
POWER UPON HISTORY
Alfred Thayer Mahan argued that the future
economic and military strength of the United
States would be dependent upon building
overseas trade and protecting American
interests across the globe with a strong Navy.
In order to accomplish this, Americans would
need to have ports and naval bases across the
world. Mahan encouraged the United States
to acquire ports like:
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
Pago-Pago, American Samoa
Midway Islands
Puerto Rico
Guantanamo Bay, Cuba
In his book The Influence of Sea Power Upon
History, Mahan concluded that a strong navy
was essential for protection, the acquisition of
natural resources during times of need, and in
order to protect economic interests.
SPREADING AMERICAN
VALUES
In the late 1800s, many Americans believed that
Americans of the “Anglo-Saxon” race were
superior to “lesser races” in other nations.
Therefore, the argument went, Americans had a
divine duty to spread Christian values and western
civilization around the world. The core of this
belief was the racist thought that white Europeans
were superior to all other types of people world
wide. The notion that Christianity was the one
true faith also colored American’s behavior – and
proselytizing groups like Christian missionaries
therefore played an important role in the
expansion of American trade in the Pacific in
places like Hawaii, China, and the Philippines. The
perverse and arbitrary rating scales which were
used to evaluate cultures promoted an entire
pseudo-science in Eugenics, which was used to
promote racist agendas like the Nazis anti-Semitic
campaigns during World War II. The racist beliefs
were not exclusively promoted by Europeans,
though. Indeed, the Japanese proclaimed
themselves biologically suited to control Asia, and
used eugenics to justify invading Manchuria and
China
HAWAII’S EARLY HISTORY
The Hawaiian islands were settled
by Polynesian islanders during the
early 600s AD. They lived on the
islands undisturbed by anyone
until around the year 1778, when
they were discovered by Captain
James Cook, an Englishmen. He
named the islands the “Sandwich”
Islands, in honor of the Earl of
Sandwich. When American
missionaries arrived in the early
1820s, they began to change the
islands both culturally and
economically – investing in sugar
and plantations. They also
brought pandemic disease to the
islands – as all Europeans had –
causing outbreaks of
communicable illnesses that wiped
out the population and broke
down the social structure of the
islands.
THE ACQUISITION OF PEARL HARBOR, 1887
As a part of the United States grand strategy of
acquiring ports suitable for both trade and
military bases, the United States began to
pressure King Kalakaua of Hawaii for the right to
establish a naval base a Pearl Harbor. This was
granted – grudgingly – in 1887, changing the
nature of American participation in economic and
political activities in the Pacific forever.
Today, Pearl Harbor is one of the largest and
most active naval bases in the nation – close in
size to the bases in Norfolk, Jacksonville, and San
Diego. But in the 1880s, the size of the United
States navy was extremely small, and there was
more interest in using Hawaii in order to
facilitate trade with Asia than establishing a
military outpost.
The presence of a harbor suitable for exporting
the sugar, pineapple, and other resources of the
islands, coupled with the military potential of the
site, made Hawaii an obvious target for US
Expansion.
QUEEN LILIUOKALANI
She was the last reigning monarch of Hawaii, and a strong
opponent of annexation by the United States of America.
During her time in power, she refused to accept the 1887
Constitution which had been imposed on King Kalakaua.
Although she wanted to restore the Hawaiian Islands to
Hawaiian people, she was eventually overthrown by a
combination of Christian Missionaries, plantation owners, and
United States Marines. The overthrow took place in 1893,
and American business leaders immediately applied to the
United States government for annexation. But the legitimacy
of the men who had taken power was very much in doubt,
and President Grover Cleveland refused condone the
overthrow. Liliuokalani would protest the annexation of her
islands to the bitter end. In protest, she wrote to Congress:
“I, Liliuokalani of Hawaii, by the will of God named heir
apparent on the tenth day of April, A.D. 1877, and by the grace
of God Queen of the Hawaiian Islands on the seventeenth day
of January, A.D. 1893, do hereby protest against the ratification
of a certain treaty, which, so I am informed, has been signed at
Washington by Messrs. Hatch, Thurston, and Kinney,
purporting to cede those Islands to the territory and
dominion of the United States. I declare such a treaty to be an
act of wrong toward the native and part-native people of
Hawaii, an invasion of the rights of the ruling chiefs, in violation
of international rights both toward my people and toward
friendly nations with whom they have made treaties, the
perpetuation of the fraud whereby the constitutional
government was overthrown, and, finally, an act of gross
injustice to me.”
PRESIDENT GROVER
CLEVELAND
President Cleveland refused to annex Hawaii in 1893,
mostly because he was so disgusted by the role
Americans had played in overthrowing the Hawaiian
monarchy. He felt that Americans had imposed a
constitution on Hawaiians unwillingly, and did not
consider the new government representative of the
true values of Hawaiian people.
Anti-Imperialists were often quite outspoken in
protest of American ventures into the Pacific. Men
like Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, and William
Jennings Bryan opposed imperialist endeavors both
because they felt this violated the principles of the
Declaration of Independence and because they were
pacifists.
When William McKinley, an imperialist president who
wanted to convert all Hawaiians to Christianity, took
office in 1897, he moved forward with the American
annexation o f Hawaii. Hawaii became a US Territory
in 1898 and a state in 1959.
SPHERES OF INFLUENCE
Where the takeover of a nation was physically
impossible, economic imperialism was often a
more realistic policy. Areas within one nation, in
this case, China, where other nations maintained
economic and political control were called
spheres of influence. The United States, Germany,
Russia, England, France, and Japan all sought to
have “spheres of influence” in China during the
late 19th Century – much to the displeasure of
Chinese people. The United States – which had
not been involved with imperialist claims in Africa
or Asia before the turn of the 20th Century – was
a little late to the game. Nevertheless,
expansionist policies put forth under McKinley
and Theodore Roosevelt in particular made the
United States a force to be reckoned with in
international affairs. McKinley’s aggressive
imperialist policies resulted in the acquisition of
colonial possessions across the globe. TR would
invest heavily in the United States Navy – building
the so-called “Great White Fleet” to project
American influence around the globe.
THE OPEN
DOOR
POLICY
US Secretary of State John Hay claimed that all of
the nation which had created “Spheres of
Influence in China should be able to trade on an
equal basis in China – without regard for which
nations Sphere of Influence they were in.”
Essentially, the United States wanted access to
Chinese markets that were already dominated by
other European or Asian powers. Not only were
European nations unwilling to go along with this,
but also, Chinese nationals were agitated to the
point of violent rebellion. Hay’s “Open Door
Policy” seemed more like kicking the door down
from the perspective of Chinese citizens.
THE BOXER REBELLION OF 1900
Chinese martial artists and
“boxers” fought during this
unsuccessful war in order
to kick out of China all
foreign influence. The
uprising lasted for months
and was partially successful
– before being crushed by
combined imperialist
forces. After the “Boxer
Rebellion,” Secretary of
State John Hay’s Open
Door Policy was more
commonly accepted by
other imperialist powers.
The United States took an
increasing interest in the
economy of Eastern Asia as
a result of the change.
The Spanish American War,
1898: “A Splendid Little War”
The US as an Imperialist Power in the Caribbean and
the Pacific Ocean.
Spain: Colonial Rulers of Cuba
Spanish “Reconcentration” Camps
The Revolutionary Jose
Marti
Cubans Demanded Independence
from Spanish Colonial Rule.
Sugar Cane Plantations
Americans wanted
to help Cubans win
their independence,
and were opposed
to the cruel
methods used by
Spaniards to control
the Cuban people.
But in addition,
Americans had over
$50 Million invested
in Cuban industries
like sugar cane, rice,
railroads, oil, or iron
mines.
In this political cartoon, the Monroe Doctrine, “Big Stick
Diplomacy, and Roosevelt Corollary (later, 1907) were
interpreted by Caribbean nations as imperialist policies.
American plans to annex
and colonize Cuba had
been in the works since
the early 1800s.
Southerners eager to
expand the United
States territory to
regions which might be
conducive to the slave
labor system with
plantation agriculture
had eyed Cuba for years.
Later, Castro and his
regime used antiAmerican sentiment to
reinforce their control
over the island.
President William McKinley
President McKinley was
opposed to war with Spain,
claiming that “there seems
to be an epidemic of
insanity in the country”
when he heard Americans
clamoring for war. But a
combination of jingoists in
his party and yellow
journalism was wearing
down his efforts for peace.
He was personally insulted
by a Spanish diplomat in the
illegally obtained de Lome
letters – which were
published in January of
1898, and growing wary.
Yellow Journalism
Yellow Journalism
is a style of reporting
and displaying news using
sensational, exaggerated,
and frequently untrue
ways which distort
reality and mislead
readers or viewers of a
news program. The
name comes from a
newspaper comic strip,
“The Yellow Kid.” (LEFT)
Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World
William Randolph Hearst of the
New York Journal
THE USS MAINE
The USS Maine was sent to Havana Harbor in Cuba in January of 1898, in order to protect
the property and interests of American businessmen and visitors there. On February 15th,
1898, the ship mysteriously exploded.
Although no one really
knows what happened to
cause the explosion of the
USS Maine, Americans blamed
the Spanish – especially after
reading newspaper headlines
like this one, from Hearst’s
New York Journal. Historians
and scientists who have
studied the wreckage to the
ship generally agree that the
ship exploded from the inside
out – indicating the explosion
was probably caused below
decks, accidentally.
THE SPANISHAMERICAN WAR
The battle cry of the United States of America
once the war with Spain began in April of 1898:
“Remember
the Maine!”
The Battle of Manila Bay,
The Philippines
The Battle of Manila Bay
The Battle of Manila Bay was the first major
event during the Spanish-American War – in
May of 1898.
 Commodore George Dewey and his men
launched a surprise attack against the
Spanish ships at anchor in Manila Bay.
 The United States Navy sank the entire
Spanish Armada, and not a single American
life was lost.
 Theodore Roosevelt, the Asst. Sec. of the
Navy in 1898, had ordered the invasion.

Emilio Aguinaldo, the leader of Filipino troops who fought
with the United States against Spain – then against the
United States from 1898 to 1901.
Emilio Aguinaldo, the
leader of Filipino forces
seeking independence
from Spain, helped the
United States to defeat
the Spanish on the
Philippine Islands. When
the US decided to claim
the Philippines as a
colonial possession later,
Aguinaldo fought the US
Army. Although usually
portrayed as a primitive
militant by the United
States, he was actually a
well-educated doctor.
THE ROUGH RIDERS
Before Theodore Roosevelt was ever president of the United States, he quit his job as the Assistant Secretary
of the Navy and organized his own volunteer cavalry unit – the Rough Riders – to fight in Cuba.
At the Battle of San Juan Hill, Buffalo Soldiers played a
major role in the fighting against Spanish troops.
The Rough Riders at San Juan Hill
The Rough Riders did
successfully lead an assault
on Spanish troops in Cuba.
Theodore Roosevelt’s
egocentric version of the
events which took place at
San Juan Hill (they called it
that although the fighting
actually took place at the
less exotic sounding Kettle
Hill) was ridiculed by one
humorist of his day, who
suggested the TR should
have called his memoirs,
“Alone in Cuba.”
COLONIES ACQUIRED BY THE UNITED
STATES IN THE TREATY OF PARIS OF 1898
The United States acquired several of Spain’s colonial possessions following the Spanish-American War – and
they were forced to liberate the island nation of Cuba, which became an American protectorate. The US also
acquired Puerto Rico, the Philippines (for $20 Million), Guam, and Wake Island.
CUBA
Cuba was liberated, but the United States kept control of a naval
base at Guantanamo Bay – which we still control today.
Puerto Rico
Guam
Wake Island
The Philippine Islands
The US Naval Base at
Guantanamo Bay, Cuba
The Platt Amendment, an addition to
Cuba’s new constitution, allowed the
United States to take control over certain
Cuban affairs.
 Cuba could not borrow money or create
treaties of its own without American
permission.
 Most importantly the United States was
allowed a naval base at Guantanamo.

The Filipino War for Independence,
1898 - 1901
After fighting with the United States to win
its liberation from Spain, Filipinos were
surprised and felt betrayed to learn that the
United States intended to keep the
Philippines as a colony of its own.
 Starting in 1898, a three year war began
between Americans and Filipinos led by
Emilio Aguinaldo. According to your text,
“about 4,000 Americans and 20,000 Filipinos
were killed.” But other sources believe the
casualties in the Philippines were much
higher.

The Filipino War, 1898
In his book, The Imperial
Cruise, author James Bradley
claims, “Most American
history books claim that U.S.
Forces killed about twenty
thousand freedom fighters
and two hundred thousand to
three hundred thousand
Filipino civilians; other
sources estimate that the U.S.
military sent one million to
three million to their early
graves.” (Bradley, James. The
Imperial Cruise: A Secret History
of Empire and War. New York:
Little, Brown, and Company,
2009, p. 127)
WATERBOARDING
DURING THE PHILIPPINE
WAR, 1898 - 1901
Waterboarding, a controversial torture technique which was used to interrogate terrorist suspects during the
Bush administration’s War on Terror, was first practiced by American soldiers during the Philippine War.
The flag of the Philippines, which gained its
independence in 1946, following World War II.
The Philippines were granted
Independence only after
World War II came to an end.
Even after the Second World
War, American influence over
the Philippines remained
strong, with financial support
for the corrupt government
of Ferdinand Marcos and a
strong military presence on
the islands. The reforms of
Corozan Aquino during the
late 1980s began to reverse
some of the controlling
influence of the United States
on the islands.
American Foreign Policy in an Age of Imperialism
To what extent is the
interpretation of the events
of the Spanish American
War and US imperialism in
the Pacific and accurate
representation? Were the
actions of the United States
and its people to
proselytize, industrialize,
and change the style of
government in regions of
the Pacific and Caribbean
carried out for altruistic
reasons? Or were selfinterested economic
motives at work instead?