Chapter 14
Theories of Personality
Chapter 14 Section 1
Purposes of Personality Theories
There is something inside people that makes them think, feel & act differently
– personality consists of the consistent, enduring & unique characteristics of
a person.
Purposes of Theories
1. A way of organizing the many characteristics we know about ourselves &
other people
a. Do certain traits go together?
b. Why do some people have certain traits and others don’t?
c. Looks for patterns.
2. Used to explain differences among individuals
a. Probes beneath the surface as to why people have certain traits
b. Might explain behavior in terms of motives
3. Explore how people conduct their lives
a. Develop ideas about what it takes to live a happy, untroubled life.
b. Explain why problems arise & why they are more difficult for some
people to manage than for others.
4. Used to determine how life can be improved
a. Some of us resign ourselves to being unhappy and we need to find
ways to grow & change individually and collectively.
When thinking about personalities, there are certain things to consider:
1. Free will vs. determinism. Are we and the world completely
determined? Is the sense that we make choices just an illusion?
2. Uniqueness vs. universality. Is each person unique, or will we
eventually discover universal laws which will explain all of human
behavior?
3. Conscious vs. unconscious motivation. Is much, most, or even all of
our behavior and experience determined by unconscious forces, i.e. forces
of which we are not aware? Or is some, little, or even none determined by
unconscious forces. Or, to put it another way, how much of what
determines our behavior are we conscious of?
4. Nature vs. nurture. This is another question that may someday be
answerable: To what degree is what we are due to our genetic inheritance
("nature") or to our upbringing and other experiences ("nurture")?
5. Early or late personality formation. Are our personality characteristics
established in early childhood, to remain relatively fixed through the rest
of our lives? Or are we every bit as flexible in adulthood? Or is that,
although change is always a possibility, it just gets increasingly difficult as
time goes on?
6. Optimism vs. pessimism. Are human beings basically good or basically
bad; Should we be hopeful about our prospects, or discouraged; Do we
need a lot of help, or would we be better off if left alone?
Chapter 14 Section 2
Psychoanalytic Theories
I.
Sigmund Freud & the Unconscious
A. Every personality has a large unconscious or unaware component.
1. Freud believed many of our experiences particularly painful ones
from childhood, are not forgotten but are stored in the
unconscious.
2. We may not be able to recall these experiences, Freud believed
they continue to influence our behavior.
B. Freud believed the personality is divided into three parts: Id, Ego,
Superego
A. Id – needs, drives, instincts & repressed material and operates
on the pleasure principle which seeks immediate gratification
regardless of the consequences
B. Ego – tries to keep a balance between the id & superego
C. Superego – sources of morals, ethics & values. Operates in terms
of a moral principle which can be overly harsh like a strict parent
and can cause people extreme guilt.
4. The id & the superego frequently come into conflict with each
other and the ego must mediate between the two. If the id is
not satisfied, the person feels an intolerable tension of longing or
anger or desire. If the superego is not obeyed, the person feels
guilty and inferior.
C. Defense Mechanisms
1. The ego’s job is so difficult that all people unconsciously resort to
psychological defenses which Freud call defense mechanisms.
2. To some degree, defense mechanisms are necessary for
psychological well-being. They relieve confusion & stress help
people get through emotional crises & give people time to work
out problems they might not be able to do if they feel all the
pressures at once.
3. If a person resorts to defense mechanisms all the time, they will
avoid facing and solving his problems realistically.
a. Rationalization
1. Making up acceptable excuses for behaviors that make
us feel anxious.
b. Repression
1. Pushing disturbing thought & memories out of
awareness without ever realizing it.
c. Denial
1. Refusing to accept the reality of something that makes
us anxious.
d. Projection
1. To believe that impulses coming from within are really
coming from other people. Inner feelings are thrown,
or projected, outside the self and assigned to others.
e. Reaction Formation
1. Replacing an unacceptable feeling or urge with the
opposite one
f. Regression
1. Going back to an earlier & less mature pattern of
behavior.
g. Displacement
1. Taking anger that you have for a person out on a less
powerful person. (Anger coming out sideways)
h. Sublimation
1. Redirecting a forbidden desire into a socially acceptable
desire.
Birth Order & Personality
First
Middle
Last
Only
Natural Leader
Flexible
Risk-taker
Close to
parents
High Achiever
Easy-going
Outgoing
Self-control
Organized
Social
Creative
Leader
On-time
Peacemakers
Self-centered
Mature
Know-it-all
Independent
Financially
irresponsible
Dependable
Bossy
Secretive
Competitive
Demanding
Responsible
May feel life is
unfair
Bored easily
Unforgiving
Adult-pleaser
Strong negotiator
Likes to be pampered
Private
Obeys the
rules
Generous
Sense of humor
Sensitive
Aries – Leo, Sagittarius and Aries
Taurus – Virgo, Capricorn and Taurus
Gemini – Libra, Aquarius and Gemini
Cancer – Pisces, Scorpio and Cancer
Leo – Aries, Sagittarius and Leo
Virgo – Taurus, Capricorn and Virgo
Libra – Gemini, Libra and Aquarius
Scorpio – Cancer, Pisces and Scorpio
Sagittarius – Aries, Leo and Sagittarius
Capricorn – Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn
Aquarius – Gemini, Libra and Aquarius
Pisces – Cancer, Scorpio and Pisces
Chapter 14 Section 2
In Freud’s footsteps…
I.
Carl Jung
A. Jung was Freud’s closest associate but began to disagree about the
psychoanalytic theory and the relationship ended.
B. Jung disagreed with Freud on two major points.
1. He took a more positive view of human nature.
2. He believed there were two parts to personality.
a.
Personal unconscious which is similar to Freud’s idea of the
unconscious
b. Collective unconscious which houses the instincts, urges &
memories of the entire human species throughout history.
1. These inherited, universal archetypes are present in
every person and reflect the common experiences of
humanity regarding mothers fathers, nature, war, etc.
2. Jung studied dreams, visions, paintings, poetry, folk
stories myths and religions & found that the same
archetypes appear again and again.
3. Many cultures share certain myths, dreams, religious
beliefs and symbols separated by time.
a. Jack & the Beanstalk, David & Goliath, weak/good
over big/bad
4. These archetypes influence our thoughts and feelings
and help us build the foundation of our personalities.
II. Alfred Adler
A. Adler was also an associate of Freud and left to develop his own
approach to personality theory.
B. Adler believed that the driving force in people’s lives is a desire to
overcome their feelings of inferiority.
C. A person who continually tries to compensate
for their weakness & avoid feelings of
inadequacy has an inferiority complex &
satisfaction comes from learning to overcome
these inadequacies.
D. Adler also believed that the way parents treat their children influences
the styles of life they choose.
a. Overpampering = child will be self-centered with little regard for
others & expects everyone to do what they want
b. Neglecting = child may seek revenge by becoming angry &
hostile
c. Both will grow into adults who lack confidence in their ability to
meet the demands of life
d. Adler believed a child should learn self-reliance & courage from
the father and generosity & a feeling for others from the mother.
e. All humans are motivated by social urges & that each person is a
social being with a unique personality.
Chapter 14 Section 3
Learning Theories
John Watson – Behaviorism
A. Watson believed only observable behavior should be studied & looked to the
environment to see what is reinforcing behavior
B. Behaviorists believe that as individuals differ in their learning experiences, they
acquire different behaviors and, in turn, different personalities.
B.F. Skinner
A. Skinner had a major impact on personality even though he didn’t focus on it
specifically.
B. Skinner focused on precisely what causes a person to act in a specific way.
C. When looking at a person, Freud link the unhappiness a person feels to their
childhood.
D. Skinner looked for contingencies of reinforcement which are conditions with
are reinforcing behaviors.
E. People may be unaware of the rewards that are shaping their behavior.
E. Skinner’s approach became very popular because it is action-oriented &
therapies have been devised from this theory to help with specific behavioral
problems.
Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory
A. Bandura believed that personality is acquired not only by direct reinforcement
but also by observational learning or imitation.
B. Through observational learning, a person acquires a new behavior by watching
the actions of another person.
C. People direct their own behavior by their choice of models.
D. Bandura has made significant contributions to the development of behavioral
theories of personality
1. Self-Efficacy – our view of our ability to succeed which leads to the
development of an expectancy of success.
Where psychoanalytic theories emphasize the influence of childhood experiences,
irrational thoughts and unconscious forces, the advantage of learning theories of
personality is that they focus on concrete actions that can be tested and measured.
Type A Personality
• A drive to succeed, coupled with impatience, irritability and aggressiveness
• Trouble relaxing and is restless
• Perfectionist and seeks results now
• Feelings of pressure even when relaxed
• A constant clock watcher
• Ignores fatigue while doing strenuous work
• Thrives on stress; his or her work is never done
• Only happy with a vigorous, fast-paced lifestyle
•Time pressures frequently create frustration & sometimes hostility
• May appear nervous, scattered and hyper
• Eats fast, walks fast & talks fast
Type B Personality
• Serious but easy going
• Patient and relaxed
• Enjoys leisure and opportunities to experiment and reflect
• Prefers a peaceful, steady, quiet & generally tranquil lifestyle
• Not easily irritated
• Are less competitive than A’s
• Slower paced; feels no need to hurry
• May appear lethargic, sluggish & bored
• Is a stress avoider; may avoid new challenges
• Speaks slowly, walks slowly, eats slowly
• Sometimes lacks the excitement, enthusiasm & dynamism needed to perform at peak
levels under pressure
Chapter 14 Section 4
Humanistic & Cognitive Theories
Humanistic Psychology
A. Humanism was a rebellion against the more negative & pessimistic view of
human nature as seen with the psychoanalytic and learning theories.
B. Humanists stress our ability to create & live by personal standards & perceptions
whereas the earlier theories believed personality & behavior is out of our control.
C. Humanistic psychology is founded on the belief that all human beings strive for
self-actualization which is the realization of our potential as unique human
beings.
Abraham Maslow – leading force of humanistic psychology
A. Leading force of Humanistic psychology
B. Maslow based his theory of personality on studies of healthy, creative, selfactualizing people rather than on people who have problems like the others had
done.
C. Maslow found that self-actualized people share certain characteristics.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Accept themselves the way they are.
More problem-centered
Base decisions on ethical principles
Strong sense of identity
Strong sense of humor
Exceptionally spontaneous
Know themselves well enough to maintain integrity
Autonomous
Rare ability to appreciate even simple things
D. To become self-actualized, a person must first satisfy their basic, primary needs
for food, shelter, physical safety, love & belonging & self-esteem.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
E. Many psychologists have criticized Maslow’s work because the sample he chose
to study self-actualizing people was based on his own subjective criteria.
Carl Rogers – Self Theory
A. Rogers was concerned with the path to self-actualization.
B. He believed that people are “clients” not “patients” because the word patient
implies and illness.
C. People suffer from a conflict between what they value in themselves & what they
believe other people value in them.
D. There are two sides or parts to every person & they are constantly struggling to
become more and more complete and perfect.
E. Each individual has what Rogers called a self which is the image that we have
of who we are and what we value which we develop gradually by observing how
other people react to you.
F. We all look for positive regard which is approval.
G. If we don’t get positive regard, we develop conditions of worth which are
conditions a person must meet in order to regard themselves positively.
H. We cope with conditions of worth by rejecting or denying parts of our person
that does not fit our self-concept basically cutting off a part of our whole being.
I.
The greater the gap between self & person, the more limited and defensive a
person becomes.
J. Rogers believed the cure for this situation or a way to prevent it is through
unconditional positive regard.
1. If significant others convey the feeling that they value you for what you
are in your entirety, you will gradually learn to grant yourself the same
unconditional positive regard.
K. When you accept your person & become open to ALL your feelings, thoughts
and experiences you are considered fully functioning and free to develop all of
your potential.
Cognitive Theory – George Kelly
A. Kelly based his theory on an analysis of our perception of ourselves & our
environment and our personality consists of our thoughts about ourselves.
B. We develop personal constructs (schemas) of people, events and concepts.
These schemas influence what we pay attention to, how we interpret events &
people and how we respond to events and people.
C. Our constructs may bias our thoughts or distort our perceptions which, in turn,
affects personality.
Chapter 14 Section 5
Trait Theory
I.
Trait – a relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another.
A.
B.
Trait theorists make 2 basic assumptions
1.
Every trait applies to all people (ex. Everyone is dependent)
2.
These descriptions can be quantified (ex. Rated on a scale of 1-10)
People are better understood by specifying their traits and by using traits to
predict people’s future behavior.
C. Other personality theorists would attempt to understand each trait while trait
theorists try to determine whether it is a trait and whether or not a particular
trait is a sign of a more basic trait.
D. The foremost question for the trait theorists is “What behaviors go together?”
II.
Gordon Allport
A.
Traits will be consistent in different situations
B.
Allport developed this theory by looking in the dictionary & found words that
described personality traits & kept one word to represent a cluster of
synonyms.
C. Identified 3 kinds of individual traits
1. Cardinal Traits – a trait that is so pervasive that the person is almost
always identified with that trait
2. Central Traits – traits that make us predictable in most situations
3. Secondary Traits – preferences in food, music, etc and are not considered
important because they have less consistent influence on us.
III. Raymond Cattell – Sixteen Trait Theory
A.
Focused on common traits that people share
B.
Narrowed down Allport’s list of traits & identified
48 surface traits
A.
From this, he identified 16 source traits which he
considered to be at the core of the personality
IV. Hans Eysenck – Dimensions of Personality
A.
Believe there are two basic dimensions of personality.
1.
Stability versus Instability which refers to the degree to which people have
control over their feelings.
2.
Extraversion versus Introversion which refers to how outgoing a person is.
V.
The Robust Five
A.
B.
Trait psychologists have shown that five traits appear repeatedly in different
research studies & are known as “the big five”
1.
Extraversion – warmth, talkativeness & being energetic (opposite –
introverted)
2.
Agreeableness – being sympathetic to others, kind & trusting (opposite –
cruel & nontrusting)
3.
Conscientiousness – dutiful, dedicated to completing tasks, organized &
responsible
4.
Openness to experience – open-minded & will to try new experiences or
ideas
5.
Emotional stability – ability to experience things relatively easily & without
getting upset (opposite – neuroticism)
Each of the big-five traits have many related traits. For example, being
conscientiousness also includes being responsible & dependable