Chapter 13
Corrections: History,
Institutions, and
Populations
The History of Correctional
Institutions
Prisons: state or federal correctional
institution for incarceration of felony
offenders for terms of one year or more
 Jails: place to confine convicted
misdemeanants serving less than one year
or to hold people awaiting trial

The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Incarceration did not become the norm until 19th century
Institutions constructed in England during the 10th century
were used to detain debtors, unemployed, or those awaiting
trial and punishment
First penal institutions were foul places devoid of proper care,
food, or medical treatment; many were run as private prisons
In the 18th century hulks (mothballed, de-masted ships) were
used to house prisoners in England, while awaiting
transportation to colonies or execution
Hulks had high death rates from disease and malnutrition
Conditions in hulks lead to the creation of reform
organizations in England (e.g., John Howard League)
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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American developments
– First American jail built in James City, VA
– Confinement of liberty were often public
(stocks, whipping posts)
– Modern American correctional system had its
origin in Pennsylvania under leadership of
William Penn (who was a Quaker)
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Quaker influence
– Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the
Miseries of Public Prisons began focus on
humane and orderly treatment
– Influence on legislature resulted in limiting the
use of the death penalty
– Walnut Street Jail
– Penitentiary house
 Basic policy: do penance, realize that you have
sinned
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Auburn system
– In 1816 New York built a new prison in Auburn
hoping to alleviate overcrowding at other holding
facilities
– Tier system, because cells were built vertically on
five floors
– Also known as the congregate system
– Three classes of prisoners were created:
 Those in solitary
 Those allowed labor as a form of recreation
 Those who worked and ate together during the day and
separated at night (largest class)
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Pennsylvania system
– Placed each inmate in a single cell
– Classifications were abolished because
isolation would prevent inmates from
contaminating each other
– Built in a circle with cells placed along its
circumference
 The panopticon, Jeremy Bentham
– Designed as a place for prisoners to do
penance
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Prisons at the turn of the century
– Prisons of the late 19th century were
remarkably similar to those of today.
– Development of prison industry
 Contract system
 Convict-lease system
 Prisons farms
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Reform movements
– 1870 National Congress of Penitentiary and Reformatory
Discipline began new era of prison reform
– Zebulon Brockway, Elmira Reformatory, advocated
individualized treatment, indeterminate sentences, and
parole
– Brockway’s achievements were limited although he did
introduce a degree of humanitarianism into prisons
– Regimes and treatment options were based on stereotypes
of criminals (e.g., Italians were natural criminals; eugenics;
social hygiene)
– Elmira became a model for other states
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Creation of parole
– 1850’s Walter Crofton created forerunner of
parole in Ireland
 Inmates spent last portion of their sentences living
in intermediate institution and working in outside
community
– Crofton’s success led to creation of similar
programs in United States
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Focused on transition back into society
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Prisons at the turn of the twentieth
century
– Time of contrast in the U.S. prison system
– Advocation of reform, rehabilitation,
education, religion
– Conservatives opposed to reform believed in
stern disciplinary measures
– Ultimately many reforms would be
implemented
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Development of specialized prisons
– Industrial prisons for hard-core inmates
– Agricultural prisons for nondangerous
offenders
– Institutions for criminally insane
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Opposition by organized labor restricts the
use of prison labor and sale of prison
made goods
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Numbers:
– About 1.3 million in prison, about 670,00 in jail
(2005)
– Costs: about 28,00 year for young adults rising
to about 70,00 for older prisoners (health care,
etc) and juveniles
– About 720,000 employees in the prison/jail
system
The History of Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Contemporary correctional trends
– Prisoners’ rights movement
– Violence within the corrections system became
a national concern
– View that traditional correctional rehabilitation
efforts have failed prompted reconsideration of
incapacitating criminals
– From rehabilitation to punishment and
incapacitation
Jails
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Five purposes
– Detain accused offenders who cannot make
bail
– Hold convicted offenders awaiting sentence
– Principal institution of confinement for those
convicted of misdemeanors
– Hold probationers and parolees arrested for
violations and waiting for a hearing
– House felons when state prisons are
overcrowded
Jails (cont.)
About 600,000 offenders are being held in
jails today
 Number has risen significantly since 1990
even though crime rate has trended
downward
 Almost 90 percent are males
 Poor, racial, and ethnic minorities are
overrepresented
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Who Is in Jail, by Race and
Ethnicity?
Jails (cont.)
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Jail conditions
– Usually low priority item in the criminal justice
system run by county officials
– No unified national policy on what constitutes
adequate conditions
– Among the most dilapidated and under funded
confinement facilities in the USA
– Administered by local police, sheriffs
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Current movement to remove people from
jails through bail reform and pretrial
diversion
Jails (cont.)
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Jail overcrowding
– Prison overcrowding forces officials to use
local jails to house inmates
– Mandatory jail sentences for drunk driving
– Crackdown on substance abuse
– Mandatory arrest policies for domestic
violence
Jails (cont.)
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New generation jails
– Modern design to improve effectiveness
– Use of pods or living areas rather than
linear/intermittent surveillance model of
traditional jails
– Allow for continuous observation of residents
– Believed to result in safer environment for staff
and inmates
– Seeks to involve inmates in controlling each
other
Prisons
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Types of prisons
– Maximum-Security: houses dangerous felons, strict
security, high walls, limited contact with outside world
– Super-Maximum Security: used to incapacitate most
dangerous felons with 23 hour day lockdown
– Medium-Security: less secure institution to house
nonviolent offenders and provides more contact with
outside world
– Minimum-Security: houses white collar and nonviolent
offenders, few security measures, liberal furlough and
visitation policy
Alternative Correctional
Institutions
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Prison farms and camps
– Found primarily in the South and the West
– Prisoners on farms produce dairy products,
grain, and crops
– Forestry Camp inmates maintain state parks,
fight forest fires, and do reforestation work
– Some famous for abuses and mistreatment of
prisoners (Angola, Tucker Farm)
Alternative Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Shock incarceration in boot camps
– Typically for youthful, first-time offenders
– Military discipline and physical training
– Short periods of high intensity exercise will
shock the inmate into going straight; “scared
straight”
– Some have educational and training elements
Alternative Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Evaluating shock incarceration
– Cost is no lower than traditional incarceration
– High failure rates
– Doris Layton Mackenzie
– Reduce prison overcrowding
Alternative Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Community correctional facilities
– Bridge the gap between institutional living
and the community
– Offer specialized treatment
– Used as intermediate sanction
– Halfway houses
Alternative Correctional Institutions
(cont.)
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Private prison enterprise
– Percy Amendment (1979)
– State-use model
– Free-enterprise model
– Generally limited to few experimental
programs
Alternative Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Private prisons
– Prisons operated by private firms as business
enterprises; run for profit
– Expectations specified in contract with government
– In some instances private company builds the prison
and leases it back to the government allowing state
to avoid the difficulty of getting voters to approve
bond issues.
– Some companies contract to provide specific services
in an institution such as medical or food services
– (2006) 264 prisons, hold about 95,000 prisoners
Alternative Correctional
Institutions (cont.)
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Evaluating private prisons
– Some research shows recidivism rates lower
for private than state-operated prisons
 But “Creaming” – tend to take the best prisoners
– Private and public prisons cost about the
same to operate, but privates are cheaper to
build
Alternative Correctional Institutions
(cont.)
– Concerns over profit-driven decisions by
private prisons
 Quality and training of personnel; provision of
services (food, medical, treatment) as cheaply as
legally allowed
– Unresolved legal issues: mistreatment of
prisoners, use of deadly force and immunity
from lawsuits
– Effects on inmates:
 Often sent far away from home, families cannot
visit, isolation and difficulty of reintegration
Correctional Populations
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Reflects common traits of arrestees held in
local jails: young, single, poorly educated,
male, and minority group members.
Number of women incarcerated is increasing at
a faster rate than males
Many inmates suffer from multiple social,
psychological, emotional, and health problems
Prison populations continue to increase despite
a decade long drop in the crime rate
Prison and Jail Population
Trends
Correctional Populations
Some numbers for prisons:
– About 640/100,000 (2005) – highest ratio in the
world
 Female rate: 60/100,000; Male rate: 906/100,000
 Race/ethnicity rates:
– White: 450/100,000;
– Black: 3,437/100,000
– Hispanic: 1,176/100,000
– Offenses committed: about 45 percent violent;
about 15 percent property; about 15 percent
drugs; about 9 percent public order offenses
Correctional Populations
– Corrections and race, ethnicity, and gender
 Prison experience (2001):
– 5.6 million adults have been in prison
– Blacks: 17% of adults; Hispanics 7.7%; Whites: 2.6%
– Men: 11.3%; women: 1.8%
 Life rates: chances of being in prison during life for
adults
– These are projected numbers from current practices
 Blacks: 1 in 3 will experience prison
 Hispanics: 1 in 6;
 Whites: 1 in 17
Correctional Populations (cont.)
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Explaining population trends
– Legislation fueled by public concern about
drugs and violent crime
– A large proportion of new admissions are for
drug offenses
– Use of mandatory sentences
– Truth in sentencing laws result in longer
prison stays
– Policy decisions driven by political concerns