Structural Functionalist Perspectives
Strain theory- Goals and the Means to Achieve them.
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Robert Merton says that in a smoothly functioning society deviance will be limited because most
people share common goals and agree upon the appropriate means for reaching them.
Deviance is common in some societies because some people are willing to use whatever ways
they can to achieve their goals.
Strain theory is, is when people feel strained when they want to obtain cultural goals that they
are unable to obtain because they don't have access to culturally approved means of achieving
those goals.
Some of these goals include
o Money
o material possessions
Approved means :
o Education
o jobs
Margaret Beare used Merton's strain theory to explain the involvement of Canadian Mohawks
in the organized crime of smuggling in the early 90s.
o the cost of cigarette had become much higher in this country then then United States. To
save money, many of those addicted to cigarettes turned to the contraband market, because
of high unemployment and lack of legitimate opportunities in most First Nations,
communities, deviance had become an attractive option to some community members.
Opportunity Theory: Access to Illegitimate Opportunities
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Sociologists Cloward and Ohlin expand the Strain theory by saying that for deviance to occur people must have
access to illegitimate opportunity structures, which are basically the circumstances that provide an opportunity
for people to acquire things they are not able to acquire through the legitimate channels, by acquiring them
through illegitimate activities.
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There are some members in communities who have insufficient legitimate means to achieve goals of status and
wealth but these same people have easier access to illegitimate opportunity structures such as stealing, drug
dealing and extortion.
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There are 3 forms of delinquent subcultures criminal, conflict and retreatist, which are based on the type of
illegitimate opportunities available in an area.
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Basically the existing gang network acts as an employment agency for the young men who lack other
opportunities. Some men grow up in the gang subculture and doing illegal things becomes a source of
illegitimate opportunity this is criminal form, which focuses on economic gain from acts such as theft, extortion
and drug dealing.
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They then use the money so they can support themselves and their families and get material possessions to
impress others. When these illegitimate economic opportunities are not available conflict form occurs
between other gangs like fighting over territory and then adopting a value system of toughness, courage and
status enhancing qualities. Those who lack ability to join these gangs may turn to drinking or drug use which is
the retreatist form of delinquent subculture.
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Opportunity theory expands Strains theory by pointing out the relationship between deviance and the
availability of illegitimate opportunity structures. Gang membership may provide some people in low-come
central city areas with illegitimate means to acquire protection, money entertainment and refuge.
Control Theory
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Importance of social bonds to the understanding of deviant behavior
Anomic suicide occurs when a lack of social regulation, caused by factors such as rapid economic
change
This creates a situation in which social organizations are weak
Gang members may bond with one and other rather than with persons who subscribe to
dominant cultural values.
Social bond theory holds that the probability of deviant behavior increases when a person’s ties
to society are weakened or broken
Social bonding consists of : 1) attachment to other people
2) Commitment to conventional lines of behavior, such as schooling and job success
3) Involvement in conventional activities and 4) belief in the legitimacy of conventional values
and norms.
Structural Functionalist Perspectives
Differential Association Theory
A functionalist theory developed by Edward Sutherland in 1939.
Definition- Individuals are more likely to deviate from societies norms when they frequently
associate with people that would rather deviate than conform to society.
Differential association theory contributes to our knowledge of how deviant behavior reflects on
individual’s learned techniques, values, attitudes, motives and rationalization from our long
lasting and close relationships.
Group encouragement of deviance supports peers in recruiting and going against norms.
Ex: body piercings, vandalism, and punk music.
This theory does not include possible linkages between social inequalities and criminal behavior.
Labelling theory (Symbolic Interactionist)
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Deviants are people who have been successfully labeled that way
o i.e. Someone says you are bad, so you act badly
Usually a person in power or authority applies the label and it is so often applied that the person
comes to accept it and believe it
Often depends on the person’s character, family, social standing
o i.e rich, smart, white are less likely to be labeled deviant for shoplifting than poor,
nonwhite peer
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Primary deviance-actual breaking of law
Secondary deviance-accepts deviant label and continues to break law
Primary deviance →label causes stigmatization →deviant self-image →secondary deviance
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Moral entrepreneurs-people who take active role in getting certain behaviours labeled deviant
i.e. MADD, people
moral crusades-public and media campaigns led by moral entrpreneurs
The conflict approach:
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The critical approach is based on the assumption that the criminal justice system protects the
power and privilege of the capitalist class.
The laws were motivated by fear of losing power rather than by real concern with criminal
behaviour
Why do people commit crimes?
o Rich people are greedy and want more than what they have, but also commit crime to
survive, avoid poverty.
o According to critical theorists the poor commit crime to survive.
o They find they can’t afford the necessary essentials, such as food, clothes and shelter.
The way laws are written and enforced benefits the capitalist class by ensuring that individuals
at the bottom of the social class structure do not infringe on the property or threaten the safety
of those on top.
People of all classes commit crimes, for example do laws that prohibit murder, rape and armed
robbery not only protect middle and upper class but also low class people.
While some laws only protect the rich and powerful, some laws protect everyone.
Postmodern Perspective on Crime
Power, knowledge and social control are intertwined
KNOWLEDGE IS POWER
Different ways of imposing social control which may at first seem more humane, but really violate
individual rights far more than traditional methods
Eg. Cameras in school, observation post in prison-students/inmates may be watched at anytime, only
administrators are those in power have knowledge of when behavior is actually being observed
Michael Foucault thought that new surveillance on prisons gave more power to prison officials, not
necessarily putting an end to the torture era.