Goals of the Bay of Pigs Invasion
• The United States government was disturbed when Fidel Castro
took over Cuba in 1959 and developed ties to the Soviet Union.
• To overthrow Castro, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
trained a group of Cubans to invade Cuba.
• President Kennedy approved the resulting Bay of Pigs invasion,
which took place on April 17, 1961.
• The Bay of Pigs invasion proved to be both a military and
diplomatic disaster.
• Airstrikes failed to destroy Cuba’s air force, and Cuban troops
were more than a match for the invaders.
• The United States lost credibility for its clumsy invasion tactics as
well as its violation of agreements not to interfere in the
Western Hemisphere.
Causes of the Berlin Crisis
• As part of the post–World War II division of Germany, the city
of Berlin in Communist East Germany had been divided into
Communist and non-Communist zones.
• The division of Berlin was planned as a temporary measure.
However, the Soviet Union demanded that the division of the
city be made permanent, hoping this would reduce the flow of
East Germans escaping through Berlin to West Germany.
Effects of the Berlin Crisis
• In response to Soviet demands, Kennedy increased funding to
the military and expanded the size of the armed forces.
• To avoid a confrontation, the Soviets built a wall to separate the
Communist and non-Communist sections of Berlin in August
1961.
• The Berlin Wall came to be a somber symbol of Cold War
tensions.
• On October 16, 1962, photographs taken from an American spy
plane showed construction of Soviet missile bases in Cuba, about 90
miles from the coast of Florida.
• The American response to this construction, and the resulting Soviet
response, became known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Cuban
Missile Crisis brought the superpowers to the brink of nuclear war.
• After much consultation with his advisors, President Kennedy decided
to authorize a naval “quarantine” around Cuba. He demanded that
Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev cease construction of the missile
bases.
• On October 25, Soviet ships headed for Cuba suddenly reversed
direction, called back by Khrushchev. This action led to tremendous
relief since confrontation, and the threat of nuclear war, had been
avoided.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis did not end when Soviet ships reversed their
course, however. The end of the crisis came several days later, when
Kennedy responded to letters sent from Khrushchev, agreeing to some
terms publicly and others in secret.
• In the end, the Soviet Union agreed to remove its missiles from Cuba.
In return, the United States agreed to end the quarantine, stay out of
Cuba, and remove missiles of its own from Turkey.
• As a result of the crisis, Kennedy and Khrushchev established a “hot
line” with which they could communicate quickly in case of further
crises.
• In addition, the United States and the Soviet Union, together with
Great Britain, signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963. This treaty
banned nuclear testing above the ground.
• Kennedy feared that Communist movements would attract
support in poor nations by promising people a better future.
• To counter these movements, Kennedy encouraged people in the
Western Hemisphere to join an Alliance for Progress. The
Alliance would help build Western-allied stable governments
that met the needs of their people. The United States pledged
billions of dollars toward this goal.
• However, many people in Latin America began to view the
Alliance as only a tool of the United States to stop the spread
of communism. Because of these doubts, the Alliance for
Progress was not as much of a success as Kennedy had hoped.
• In 1961, Kennedy established the Peace Corps to further his
goal of a world in which people worked together peacefully to
solve problems.
• Peace Corps volunteers were Americans who agreed to work
side by side with local citizens in poorer nations, teaching skills
and improving living conditions.
• Today, Peace Corps volunteers continue to serve in nations
around the world.
The Dominican Republic
• In 1965, rebels attacked the military-backed government of the
Dominican Republic.
• Johnson believed that the rebels had been backed by
Communist supporters. He sent thousands of marines to the
Dominican Republic, tipping the balance against the rebels and
installing a new provisional government.
• It turned out that the rebels had not received Communist support
after all.
Vietnam
• Like Kennedy, Johnson was committed to preventing the spread
of communism.
• The ongoing conflict in Southeast Asia between Communist North
Vietnam and non-Communist South Vietnam continued during
Johnson’s term.
• Although Johnson at first opposed further United States action in
Vietnam, American involvement soon deepened.
The assassination of John F.
Kennedy, the thirty-fifth
President of the United States,
took place on Friday,
November 22, 1963, in Dallas,
Texas, at 12:30 p.m. Central
Standard Time.
President Kennedy Assassination Facts:
JFK was in Dallas, TX on 11/22/63.
He was campaigning in the city that day.
His motorcade proceeded through the city and he
was fatally shot in Dealey Plaza near the end of
his motorcade route.
His wife, Jacqueline Kennedy and Governor of
Texas, John Connally were in the limousine with
him.
•
•
•
When the Presidential limousine turned and passed the Texas School Book Depository and
continued down Elm Street, shots were fired at Kennedy.
The Dallas police sealed off the entrances to the Texas School Book Depository as
eyewitnesses professed hearing shots coming from that general direction.
Upon investigation of the building a shooting area (now referred to as the snipers nest)
was found and later linked to Lee Harvey Oswald
The Sniper’s Nest
Aboard Air Force
One, Vice
President Lyndon
B. Johnson is
sworn in as
President of the
United States. To
the left is his wife,
and to the right
still stunned by
what happened is
Mrs. Kennedy in
her blood stained
Chanel suit.
Lee Harvey Oswald was, according to three
government investigations, the assassin of
U.S. President John F. Kennedy, November 22, 1963.
Oswald’s Suspicious Background:
A United States Marine who defected to the
Soviet Union and later returned.
Oswald was a Pro-Castro Supporter.
Oswald on November 22, 1963:
Oswald was arrested on suspicion of killing Dallas
police officer J. D. Tippit
Oswald becomes a prime Suspect:
The police found his Sniper’s Nest as they searched the
Texas School Book Depository
Lee Harvey Oswald
As he was about to be taken to the Dallas County
Jail, Oswald was shot and fatally wounded before
live television cameras in the basement of Dallas
Police Headquarters by Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub
operator who said that he had been distraught over
the Kennedy assassination.
Officer JD Tippit
Ruby’s Mug shot
Ruby fatally Shooting Oswald
Jack Leon Rubenstein, who legally changed his name to Jack Leon Ruby in 1947, was an American nightclub operator in Dallas,
Texas was convicted on March 14, 1964, of the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald on November 24, 1963, two days after
Oswald was arrested for the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. While in jail, he became ill and died of lung cancer
on January 3, 1967.
• The cost of the funeral was $710.00.
• Buried at Rose Hill Cemetery.
• Secret Service was in attendance.
• His final journey was from St.
Matthew’s to Arlington Cemetery.
• Just as the 1960’s debate changed
politics, so did JFK’s funeral as it
was watched by millions of
Americans on television.
• The most famous photo of JFK’s
son saluting his casket as he says
goodbye to his father one last time.
November 25, 1963
"I have a piece of his brain in my
hand.”
"My God, they have shot his
head off."
“I want them to see what they
have done to my husband.”
-All Quotes from Mrs. Kennedy
The Assassination
• Conflicting testimony about the autopsy performed on President
Kennedy's body.
• Particularly as to when the examination of the president's brain
took place.
• Who was present and whether or not the photos submitted as
evidence are the same as those taken during the examination.
(exit wound in the front or back of head?)
• However, while the President's autopsy was underway at Bethesda Naval
Hospital, federal agents removed the X-rays of the body from custody of the
examining doctors. Though the X-rays undoubtedly would have been
valuable in determining trajectories of the bullets hitting the President, and
thus the shooter's location, they are neither published nor alluded to in the
Warren Report.
The conclusion of the Warren
Commission Report on the JFK
Assassination was:
Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in
the killing of Kennedy and the
wounding of Texas Governor John
Connally.
In the years following the release of its
report and 26 investigatory evidence
volumes in 1964, the Warren
Commission has been frequently
criticized for some of its methods,
important omissions, and conclusions.
According to the single-bullet theory, a three-centimeter-long copper-jacketed leadcore 6.5-millimeter rifle bullet fired from the sixth floor of the Texas School Book
Depository passed through President Kennedy’s neck and Governor Connally’s chest
and wrist and embedded itself in the Governor’s thigh.
Horizontal View
From above
• Bullet fired from 6th floor of TSBD entered 5.75” BELOW
President Kennedy’s collar and through his neck.
• From his neck it passed through Governor Connelly’s
chest/right armpit.
• From his chest/armpit area, it exited by his nipple and
into his RIGHT wrist.
• And from his RIGHT wrist, the bullet landed in the
Governor’s LEFT thigh.
The “Magic Bullet” or Commission Exhibit 399.
United States House of Representatives Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) was
established in 1976 to investigate the John F. Kennedy assassination.
In its final report in 1979, it concluded that President John F. Kennedy was assassinated by
Lee Harvey Oswald, probably as a result of a conspiracy. The members of this probable
conspiracy were not identified.
• Oswald fired THREE shots at JFK. Shots 2 and 3 hit him, shot
3 killed him.
• Scientific acoustical evidence gives high probability of at least
two gunmen fired.
• Assassinated as a result of a conspiracy. But they would not
say whom.
• They did say who was not involved: Soviets, Castro/AntiCastro groups, Mafia, Secret Service, F.B.I, and C.I.A. were
NOT involved in the conspiracy
But what about the Grassy Knoll???
The grassy knoll of Dealey Plaza is a
small, sloping hill inside the plaza that
became famous following the John F.
Kennedy assassination.
Of the 104 earwitness reports
published by the HCSA
Commission and elsewhere, 35
recorded testimony of shots from
the direction of the grassy knoll.
Clockwise from Top Left: Carcano bolt action
rifle. The bullets that were taken from JFK
during autopsy. A shell casing from the murde
weapon.
There are many conspiracy theories regarding who was behind the assassination of John F.
Kennedy on November 22, 1963 that arose soon after his death and continue to be promoted
today. Some of these include:
CIA
KGB
American Mafia
FBI director J. Edgar Hoover
Former Vice President Richard Nixon
Sitting Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson
Cuban president Fidel Castro
Anti-Castro Cuban exile groups
The Federal Reserve
The military-industrial complex
Representatives of Big Business
or some combination of those entities and individuals
The Vietnam War
(1954–1975)
Background of the War
• According to President
Eisenhower’s domino theory,
if one Southeast Asian nation
fell to communism, others
would soon follow.
• Ho Chi Minh, a proCommunist leader in
Vietnam, led a group called
the Vietminh against French
control of his nation before,
during, and after World War
II.
Background of the War
• After the Vietminh successfully defeated the
French in 1954, a peace agreement called the
Geneva Accords divided Vietnam into Communist
North Vietnam and anti-Communist South
Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh led North Vietnam, while
Ngo Dinh Diem led South Vietnam.
• The United States began providing economic aid
to the French in Vietnam in 1950. In 1960,
President Eisenhower sent hundreds of military
advisors to help South Vietnam’s struggle against
the North.
Kennedy’s Vietnam Policy
Diem’s Downfall
• During the early 1960s, Ngo Dinh Diem’s policies lost
him the support of his people.
• Realizing that the struggle against communism could
not be won under Diem’s rule, President Kennedy
told South Vietnamese military leaders that the
United States would not object to Diem’s overthrow.
• In November 1963, military leaders seized control of
South Vietnam and assassinated Diem.
Kennedy’s Vietnam Policy
McNamara’s Role
• Robert McNamara, President Kennedy’s Secretary
of Defense, was influential in shaping American
policy toward Vietnam.
• McNamara used his strong business background
to cut costs while modernizing the armed forces.
• In the coming years, McNamara would push for
direct American involvement in Vietnam.
President Johnson and Communist
Advances
• Shortly after Diem’s assassination in November
1963, President Kennedy was assassinated, and
Vice President Johnson assumed the presidency.
• In South Vietnam, the military leaders who had
taken over the government were unsuccessful and
unpopular. As a result, Communist guerrillas in
South Vietnam, known as the Viet Cong, made
gains in both territory and loyalty. The Viet Cong’s
political wing was known as the National
Liberation Front.
Expanding Presidential Power
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
What Inspired the Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution?
What Was the Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution?
What Additional Powers Did
It Give the President?
In August 1964, Johnson
announced that North
Vietnamese torpedo boats had
attacked American destroyers in
the Gulf of Tonkin. However,
some people doubted that this
incident had happened and
believed it was only an excuse
for further U.S. involvement in
Vietnam.
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution,
passed by Congress in 1964,
regarded peace and security in
Southeast Asia as vital to
American national interest, and
it gave the President additional
powers to assist any Southeast
Asian country “requesting
assistance in defense of its
freedoms.”
Under the resolution, the
President had authority to “take
all necessary measures to repel
any armed attack against the
forces of the United States and
to prevent further aggression.”
The resolution, therefore,
changed the balance of power
between Congress and the
President.
Battlefield Conditions
American Troops
Had superior weapons
Were unprepared for heat, terrain,
or guerrilla tactics
Lacked support of most South
Vietnamese
Most never saw the enemy but
constantly faced the possibility of
sudden danger.
Viet Cong Troops
Fought as guerrillas; avoided headon clashes
Were familiar with terrain; had
support of many South Vietnamese
Built and hid in elaborate
underground tunnels
The
Air
and
Ground
Wars
Some Weapons Used in the Vietnam War
• Land Mines — Land mines,which can be set off
by the pressure of a footstep, are explosive
devices planted in the ground. Viet Cong
landmines killed and wounded both American GIs
and Vietnamese civilians.
• Saturation Bombing — American B-52 bomber
planes dropped thousands of tons of explosives,
resulting in saturation bombing of North
Vietnam.
The Air and Ground Wars
• Fragmentation Bombs — Fragmentation bombs, dropped
by Americans over both North and South Vietnam, threw
pieces of their thick metal casings in all directions when
they exploded. In South Vietnam, fragmentation bombs
killed and maimed countless civilians.
• Agent Orange — American pilots dropped an herbicide
called Agent Orange over Vietnamese jungles, killing
vegetation and exposing Viet Cong hiding places. Agent
Orange was later discovered to cause health problems in
livestock and humans.
• Napalm — Another chemical weapon used in Vietnam,
napalm,was a jellylike substance which, when dropped
from planes splattered, and burned uncontrollably.
The Ho Chi Minh Trail
North Vietnamese troops and supplies entered
South Vietnam via the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a
route that passed through Laos and Cambodia.
The Tet Offensive: A Turning Point
• On January 30, 1960, the Viet Cong and North Vietnam launched a
major offensive. This series of attacks was called the Tet Offensive
since it occurred during Tet, the Vietnamese New Year.
• During and after the Tet Offensive, both sides were guilty of brutal
atrocities. Communists slaughtered anyone they labeled an enemy;
Americans massacred hundreds of civilians at My Lai, a small village
in South Vietnam. A helicopter crew that stopped the massacre was
later rewarded, and the officer who had ordered it was imprisoned.
• Because Americans now knew that the Viet Cong could launch
massive attacks, and because no end to the war was in sight, the Tet
Offensive proved to be a major psychological victory for the Viet
Cong and a turning point in the war.
Student Activism
Student Activism in the 1960s
• Generation Gap — Young Americans in the 1960s had
many opportunities unknown to previous generations;
many also questioned the values of their parents.
These factors contributed to a wider generation gap
between college-aged youths and their parents.
• Students for a Democratic Society and the New Left —
Organized in 1960, Students for a Democratic Society
(SDS) had a major impact on the New Left, a political
movement that advocated radical changes to deal with
problems such as poverty and racism.
Student Activism
• The Free Speech Movement — Student protests for free
speech at the University of California at Berkeley inspired
similar movements elsewhere, including challenges to
social restrictions on campuses.
• The Teach-in Movement — Begun at the University of
Michigan in March 1965, teach-ins, or special sessions at
which issues concerning the war could be discussed, soon
became a popular means of expressing antiwar sentiment.
• Continued Protests — Hundreds of demonstrations
continued at colleges and universities around the country.
One of the most dramatic, at Columbia University in New
York City, linked the issues of civil rights and the war.
Draft Resistance
• To increase the available fighting force, the United States
invoked the Selective Service Act of 1951, drafting young
men between the ages of 18 and 26 into the armed forces.
• Most of those who refused to be drafted in the early 1960s
were conscientious objectors, people who opposed
fighting on moral or religious grounds.
• As the Vietnam War progressed, the draft-resistance
movement grew, with many young men burning their draft
cards or fleeing the country to avoid the draft.
• At first, college students could receive a deferment, or
postponement of their call to serve. Deferments were
eliminated in 1971 in response to complaints that they
were unfair to those who could not afford college.
Nixon’s Vietnam Policy
• Toward the end of his term as President, Johnson had called for
peace negotiations to end the Vietnam War. However, the resulting
Paris peace talks, which began in May 1968, failed to produce an
agreement.
• President Nixon campaigned on the claim that he had a secret plan
to end the war. In June 1969, he began the policy of
Vietnamization, replacing American troops in Vietnam with South
Vietnamese soldiers.
• Although Nixon wanted to end the war, he did not want to lose it.
He therefore launched secret bombing raids and expanded the war
to Cambodia, hoping to destroy Viet Cong camps there.
• Nixon hoped his Cambodian attacks would help America in peace
negotiations. Instead, the attacks resulted in both civil war in
Cambodia and more antiwar protests in the United States.
Nixon Calls for Law and Order
The Silent Majority
• Nixon had campaigned promising a
return to law and order. As President,
he strengthened this position,
discouraging protest against the war.
• In a 1969 speech, Nixon appealed to
those who, he felt, quietly supported
his policies. He referred to this group of
Americans as “the silent majority.”
Kent State and Jackson State
• When student antiwar protesters at
Kent State University in Ohio reacted
angrily to Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia,
Nixon ordered the National Guard to
Kent State. After students threw rocks
at the guardsmen, the troops opened
fire, killing and wounding both
protesters and bystanders.
• The violence at Kent State, and a
similar incident at Jackson State in
Mississippi, horrified Americans.
American Withdrawal
Provisions of Peace Settlement Between the United States, South Vietnam,
North Vietnam, and the Viet Cong,Signed in Paris in January 1973
The United States would withdraw all its forces from South Vietnam within
60 days.
All prisoners of war would be released.
All parties to the agreement would end military activities in Laos and
Cambodia.
The 17th parallel would continue to divide North and South Vietnam until
the country could be reunited.
Aftermath of the War in Asia
South Vietnam Falls
• After American forces had
withdrawn, North Vietnam
attacked strategic cities in
South Vietnam, ending with its
capital, Saigon.
• Following a last-minute
evacuation of both American
soldiers and Vietnamese
refugees, South Vietnam
surrendered in April 1975, and
Vietnam became unified under
a Communist government.
Southeast Asia After the War
• In April 1975, Cambodia fell to
the Khmer Rouge, a
Communist force led by Pol
Pot. The Khmer Rouge killed a
quarter of the Cambodian
population, claiming they were
“tainted” with Western ways.
• Vietnam’s new leaders forced
hundreds of thousands of
Vietnamese into “reeducation
camps”; refugees from
Vietnam, Cambodia, and
newly Communist Laos fled
their home countries.
The Legacy of the War
• With a cost of at least $150 billion, and hundreds of
thousands of American soldiers killed or wounded, the
Vietnam War was the longest and least successful war in
American history.
• Thousands of American soldiers who did not return home
after the war were listed as POWs (prisoners of war) or MIAs
(missing in action). Many remain unaccounted for today.
• In Vietnam, millions were dead or wounded, many of them
civilians. The war also heavily damaged the landscape of
Vietnam.
• In 1994, the United States lifted its trade embargo against
Vietnam; in 1995, full diplomatic relations were restored.
The Vietnam Veterans Memorial
• Designed by 21-year old Maya Ying Lin and completed in 1982, the
Vietnam Veterans Memorial stands near the Lincoln Memorial in
Washington, D.C. It consists of a long wall of black granite, listing the
names of every American who died in the Vietnam War. Since its
completion, visitors have added to the memorial by leaving personal
tokens at the wall in memory of their loved ones.
Nixon in Person
 Although he had a reserved and remote personality,
many Americans respected Nixon for his experience
and service.
 Nixon was willing to say or do anything to defeat his
enemies, who included political opponents, the
government bureaucracy, the press corps, and leaders
of the antiwar movement.
 Believing that the executive branch needed to be
strong, Nixon gathered a close circle of trusted
advisors around him.
Nixon’s Staff
Nixon’s Close Advisors
 H. R. Haldeman — After campaigning tirelessly for Nixon,
advertising executive H. R. Haldeman became Nixon’s chief of
staff.
 John Ehrlichman — Lawyer John Ehrlichman served as Nixon’s
personal lawyer and rose to the post of chief domestic advisor.
 John Mitchell — Asked to be Attorney General after working
with Nixon’s campaign in New York, Mitchell often spoke with
Nixon several times a day.
 Henry Kissinger — Although he had no previous ties to Nixon,
Harvard government professor Henry Kissinger first became
Nixon’s national security advisor and later his Secretary of State.
Domestic Policy—Oil and Inflation
 During Nixon’s first few years in office, unemployment and
inflation rose, and federal spending proved difficult to
control. In response, Nixon turned to the practice of
deficit spending, or spending more money in a year than
the government receives in revenues. He also imposed two
price freezes lasting several months each.
 When the United States supported its ally Israel in a war
against Egypt and Syria in 1973, the Arab members of the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
imposed an embargo, or ban, on shipping oil to the United
States. The resulting shortage resulted in high oil prices,
which in turn drove inflation even higher.
Domestic Policy—Social Programs
 Although Nixon himself supported cutting back or
eliminating federal social programs, he did not want to
alienate those voters who favored them.
 Under Nixon’s New Federalism, states were asked to
assume greater responsibility for the well-being of
their citizens, taking some of this responsibility away
from the federal government.
The “Southern Strategy”
Nixon’s Views on Civil Rights
 Nixon did not support
advances in civil rights,
believing that to do so
would cost him the
support of many white
southern voters.
 Hoping to win over white
southern Democrats,
Nixon sought a “southern
strategy” which would
keep his supporters happy.
Results of Nixon’s Views
 Nixon’s views resulted in a
slowdown of
desegregation.
 Although Nixon tried to
prevent the extension of
certain provisions of the
Voting Rights Act of 1965,
Congress went ahead with
the extension.
 Busing to end segregation
in schools was slowed, but
not halted entirely, by
Nixon’s opposition to it.
Nixon’s Supreme Court
 During Nixon’s first term in office, four of the nine
Supreme Court justices either died, resigned, or
retired. This gave him the opportunity to name four
new justices and, thus, reshape the court.
 Warren Burger, Nixon’s choice for Chief Justice, was a
moderate. However, Nixon’s later appointees reflected
his conservative views.
 The Senate rejected two of Nixon’s nominees from the
South, charging that they showed racial bias.
The First Moon Landing
 During Nixon’s presidency, the United States achieved
its goal of a successful moon landing.
 On July 20, 1969, Neil A. Armstrong became the first
man to walk on the moon. He was joined by Edwin E.
“Buzz” Aldrin, Jr., a fellow crewman on the Apollo 11
spacecraft.
 Television viewers around the world watched the
moon landing, and Apollo 11’s crew were treated as
heroes when they returned.
Henry Kissinger
Practical Politics
 Kissinger admired the European political
philosophy of practical politics. Under this policy,
nations make decisions based on maintaining
their strength rather than on moral principles.
 Kissinger applied this approach to his dealings
with China and the Soviet Union, which led to
better diplomatic relations with both nations.
Public Opinion
 Kissinger understood the power of the media and
was able to use it to shape public opinion.
 Kissinger’s efforts in ending the Vietnam War and
easing Cold War tensions made him a celebrity.
He topped a list of most-admired Americans, was
often featured on the cover of Time magazine, and
in 1973 shared the Nobel peace prize.
Détente
 Although Nixon had built a reputation as a strong
anti-Communist, he and Kissinger reversed the
direction of postwar American foreign policy by
holding talks with China and the Soviet Union.
 Nixon and Kissinger’s greatest accomplishment
was in bringing about détente, or a relaxation in
tensions, between the United States and these
Communist nations.
Complex Foreign Affairs
 Kissinger understood that foreign affairs were
more complicated than just a standoff between the
United States and communism.
 The Soviet Union and China, once allies, had
become bitter enemies. This development had the
potential to reshape global politics.
A New Approach to China
Easing Relations Between the United States and China
 Historical Background — After its Communist takeover in 1949, the United
States refused to recognize the People’s Republic of China, viewing the
government of Taiwan as the legitimate Chinese rulers.
 Steps to Ease Relations — During the early 1970s, relations eased between the
United States and the People’s Republic of China. Nixon referred to the nation
by name, travel and trade restrictions were lifted, and American table-tennis
players visited China, beginning “Ping-Pong diplomacy.”
 Nixon’s Visit to China — In February 1972, Nixon became the first American
President to visit China. Touring Chinese sites in front of television cameras,
Nixon established the basis for future diplomatic ties during his visit.
 Recognizing the Chinese Government — The United States decided to join
other nations in recognizing the Chinese government. In October 1971, Taiwan
lost its seat in the United Nations to the People’s Republic of China.
Limiting Nuclear Arms
 Nixon viewed arms control as a vital part of his foreign
policy. Although he had taken office planning to build
more nuclear weapons, Nixon came to believe that
achieving balance between the superpowers was a better
strategy than an increasing nuclear arms race.
 In 1972, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the
first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, known as SALT I. In
this treaty, both nations agreed to freeze the number of
certain types of missiles at 1972 levels.
 SALT I demonstrated that arms control agreements
between the superpowers were possible. However, it did
not reduce the number of weapons that either nation
possessed, nor did it halt the development of conventional
weapon technologies.
Battling Political Enemies
 Nixon’s suspicious and secretive nature caused the White House to operate as if
it were surrounded by political enemies. One result of this mind-set was the
creation of an “enemies list,” a list of prominent people seen as unsympathetic
to the administration.
 When someone in the National Security Council appeared to have leaked
secret government information to the New York Times, Nixon ordered that
wiretaps, or listening devices, be installed on the telephones of some news
reporters and members of his staff.
 Leaks to the press continued, including former Defense Department official
Daniel Ellsberg’s leak of the Pentagon Papers, a government study that revealed
widespread deception about the situation in Vietnam.
 In response, Nixon organized a special White House unit, nicknamed the
Plumbers, to stop government leaks. In September 1971, the Plumbers broke
into the office of Ellsberg’s psychiatrist, hoping to punish Ellsberg by disclosing
damaging personal information about him.
Nixon’s Reelection Campaign
Campaign Funding
 The Committee to Reelect the
President, led by John Mitchell,
aimed to collect as much
campaign money as possible
before a new law required such
contributions to be reported.
 The money that the Committee
collected was intended to fund
both routine campaign activities
and secret unethical actions.
“Dirty Tricks”
 Attempts to sabotage Nixon’s
political opponents came to be
known as “dirty tricks.” These
efforts included sending
hecklers to disrupt Democratic
campaign meetings and
assigning spies to join the
campaigns of opposing
candidates.
 One particularly damaging
“dirty trick” involved a faked
letter that seriously hurt the
candidacy of Edmund Muskie, a
leading Democratic presidential
contender.
The Watergate Break-In
 In March 1972, a group within the Committee to
Reelect the President made plans to wiretap the
phones at the Democratic National Committee
Headquarters at the Watergate apartment complex in
Washington, D.C. This group was led by E. Howard
Hunt and G. Gordon Liddy.
 The group’s first attempt failed. During their second
attempt on June 17, 1972, five men were arrested. The
money they carried was traced directly to Nixon’s
reelection campaign, linking the break-in to the
campaign.
 The break-in and the coverup which resulted became
known as the Watergate scandal.
The Watergate Coverup
 Although Nixon had not been involved in the break-
in, he became involved in its coverup. He illegally
authorized the CIA to try to persuade the FBI to stop
its investigation of the break-in, on the grounds that
the matter involved “national security.”
 Nixon advisors launched a scheme to bribe the
Watergate defendants into silence, as well as coaching
them on how to lie in court.
 During the months following the break-in, the
incident was barely noticed by the public. Nixon won
the 1972 election by a landslide.
The Scandal Unfolds
The Watergate Trial
 At the trial of the Watergate
burglars in early 1973, all the
defendants either pleaded
guilty or were found guilty.
 Judge John J. Sirica, presiding
over the trial, was not
convinced that the full story
had been told. He sentenced
the burglars to long prison
terms, suggesting that their
terms could be reduced if
they cooperated with
upcoming Senate hearings on
Watergate.
Woodward and Bernstein
 Two young Washington Post
reporters, Bob Woodward
and Carl Bernstein, were
influential in tracking down
information to uncover the
Watergate story.
 Woodward and Bernstein
believed that the White
House would prove to be
involved in the Watergate
scandal.
The Scandal Unfolds
The Senate Investigates
 Aided by Woodward and
Bernstein and by the testimony
of one of the Watergate burglars,
a Senate Select Committee on
Presidential Campaign Activities
began to investigate the
Watergate affair.
 Millions of Americans watched
the Senate hearings unfold on
national television.
 Nixon attempted to protect
himself by forcing two top aides
to resign and by proclaiming
that he would take final
responsibility for the mistakes of
others.
A Secret Taping System
 During the Senate hearings,
Alexander Butterfield, a former
presidential assistant, revealed
the existence of a secret taping
system in the President’s office.
 The taping system had been set
up to provide a historical record
of Nixon’s presidency. Now it
could be used to show whether
or not Nixon had been involved
in the Watergate coverup.
The “Saturday Night Massacre”
 In an effort to demonstrate his honesty, in May 1973
Nixon agreed to the appointment of a special
prosecutor for the Watergate affair. A special
prosecutor works for the Justice Department and
conducts an investigation into claims of wrongdoing
by government officials.
 The Watergate special prosecutor, Archibald Cox,
insisted that Nixon release the White House tapes.
Nixon ordered him fired on Saturday, October 20,
1973, beginning a series of resignations and firings that
became known as the “Saturday Night Massacre.”
An Administration in Jeopardy
Problems in the Nixon Administration, 1973–1974
 Nixon’s public approval rating plummeted after his
firing of Cox.
 When Cox’s replacement, Leon Jaworski, also
requested that Nixon turn over the tapes, Nixon
turned over edited transcripts instead. Feelings of
anger and disillusionment arose among many who
read them.
 Vice President Spiro Agnew, accused of evading
income taxes and taking bribes, resigned in early
October 1973. His successor, Gerald Ford, was not
confirmed until two months later.
Impeachment Hearings and Nixon’s
Resignation
 After the Saturday Night Massacre, Congress began
the process of determining if they should impeach the
President, or charge him with misconduct while in
office.
 In the summer of 1974, the House Judiciary Committee
voted to impeach Nixon on numerous charges.
Conviction, and removal from office, seemed likely.
 On August 5, 1974, Nixon released the White House
tapes, with an 18 1/2 minute gap. Even with this gap,
the tapes revealed his involvement in the Watergate
coverup. On August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned, the first
President ever to do so. Gerald Ford was sworn in as
the new President.
Ford Becomes President
 When Gerald Ford took over the Presidency following
Nixon’s resignation, he was viewed as a popular and
noncontroversial political figure.
 Ford named New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller as Vice
President, rounding off an administration in which neither
the President nor the Vice President had been elected.
The Nixon Pardon
 At the beginning of Ford’s presidency, Time magazine noted
“a mood of good feeling and even exhilaration in
Washington.” However, this was soon to change.
 A month after Nixon’s resignation, Ford pardoned the
former President for “all offenses” he might have committed,
avoiding future prosecution. This decision proved to be
unpopular, both among the general public and among Nixon
loyalists still facing prosecution. As a result, many
Republicans were voted out of office in the 1974
congressional elections.
Economic Problems
The Economy Stalls
 Preoccupation with Watergate
had prevented Nixon from
dealing with the economy. By
1974, both inflation and
unemployment were rising,
making the economy stagnant.
Economists named this situation
stagflation.
 Although Ford tried to restore
public confidence in the
economy with the voluntary
“Whip Inflation Now,” or WIN
program, he later recognized
the need for more direct action.
Government Spending and Conflicts
With Congress
• Although Ford was generally
against government spending, he
supported an increase in
unemployment benefits and a tax
cut in an effort to help the
economy.
• Ford was often at odds with the
Democratic-controlled Congress,
which wanted the government to
take a more active role in the
economy. In response to Ford’s
vetoes, Congress created the
highest percentage of veto
overrides since the 1850s.
Foreign Policy–Southeast Asia
 When North Vietnam began a new offensive against the South in
the spring of 1975, Ford asked for military aid to help South
Vietnam. However, both Congress and the American people were
against further involvement in Vietnam.
 To prevent such involvement, Congress was prepared the invoke
the War Powers Act, a Nixon-era law limiting the President’s
ability to involve the United States in foreign conflicts without
receiving a formal declaration of war from Congress.
 When Communist Cambodia captured the American merchant
ship Mayaguez, Ford sent the marines to recapture the ship. Fortyone American lives were lost in the effort, but the incident
dispelled impressions of American weakness in Southeast Asia.
Foreign Policy - Asia, Europe, and Africa
 Asia — Ford continued Nixon’s goals of friendship with
China and was the first American President to visit Japan.
 Europe and the Soviet Union — In 1975, Ford signed the
Helsinki Accords, a series of agreements on European
security. He also continued Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
(SALT) with the Soviet Union.
 Africa — Ford’s administration aimed to develop
relationships with African countries newly independent from
colonial rule.
The Nation’s Birthday
 America’s bicentennial, or 200th anniversary, provided
Americans, discouraged by Watergate, Vietnam, and the
economy, an opportunity to celebrate.
 Parades, concerts, air shows, political speeches, and
fireworks took place on and around July 4, 1976, the 200th
anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of
Independence.
To understand today’s troubles we
have to go back – way back.
There have been 4 attempts to invade and control its people.
1). Alexander the Great 320 B.C.E.
2). Genghis Khan 1200 C.E.
3). The British Empire (3 times)!
4). The Soviet Union
Alexander the Great
• - Led the world’s largest army across the known
world, conquering every empire in his path.
• - Died in Babylon (Iraq) on his way home at 32.
• - On his death bed whispered his last words:
"I defeated the Persians, and
I swung through the Pyramids,
But, I wept in Bactria" (ancient name for
Afghanistan)
Genghis Khan
• Well known as a bad dude. Remembered for
his willingness to kill EVERYONE!
• While he had some success in Afghanistan it
was the only place his empire couldn’t hang on
to.
What do all of these nations have in
common?
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They were all the biggest army in the world at the time of
their involvement in Afghanistan.
They relied on huge shows of military force using
advanced military technology and brute force.
They underestimated the power of the tribal groups of
this region.
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Each new invader brought new religious beliefs.
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Losses: Geography and tribal infrastructure.
The Soviets
• USSR invades Afghanistan to support the
communist government against Northern
India.
• The US helps the Mujahadeen overthrow the
USSR – why?
• 1979 was during the Cold
War, a time when the USA
was a rival to the Soviet
Union. The USA wanted to
help Afghans fight the
Soviets.
• The CIA sent stinger
missiles to Afghans to shoot
down Soviet helicopters.
Mujahadeen“The Freedom Fighters”
-Using guerilla tactics, Mujahedeen fighters destroyed both military and
civilian targets like bridges, roads and buildings.
- They assassinated key military and political leaders.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
had many lasting effects.
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1). Some of these include: Nearly 1.5 million undetonated land mines.
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Some statistics say that up to 1 in every 5 children have lost a limb to unexploded mines and
artillery. Mines shaped like toys.
2). Afghanistan has the distinct honor of having one of the highest numbers of orphans
in any country. This is a result of nearly constant war since 1979.
Life expectancy is 45 years.
Lasting effects of the Soviet Invasion
3). A generation of Afghan children orphaned by the
war with little guidance, education or support.
The Result: A perfect place to be recruited by groups
like the Taliban and Al Qaeda (Madrassas)
Lasting Effects of the Soviet Invasion
4). The Birth of Global Jihad
The single most lasting effect of the invasion by the Soviet Union
was the gathering of Islamic fighters to the cause of defending
their version of Islam.
The Fight for Control of Afghanistan
After the final Soviet troops left in 1989, the battle for who would run
Afghanistan began.
Rise of the Taliban
According to our experts on the Taliban, it was during this time that the various Mujahedeen fighters saw an
opportunity to spread their control over Afghanistan.
Battle Royale for Control of Afghanistan!
The Northern Alliance
The Taliban
VS.
Ahmed Shah Masood
Mullah Omar
Rise of the Taliban
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From the withdrawal of the Soviet army in 1989
until the Taliban (some were former Mujahadeen)
take control of the capital Kabul, the nation was
thrown into yet another period of destruction.

In September of 1996 the Taliban became the
official government of Afghanistan. They threw out
the existing constitution and established strict
Sharia Law.
Life under the Taliban

According to The Encyclopedia of the Muslim World ,edited by Richard C.
Martin “The Taliban enjoyed great support of the population of Afghanistan
following decades of endless fighting.”
According to the NY Times reporter Amy Pines

“Under the Taliban regime, Sharia Law was interpreted to ban a wide variety of activities
hitherto lawful in Afghanistan: employment, education and sports for women, movies, television,
videos, music, dancing, hanging pictures in homes, clapping during sports events, kite flying,
and beard trimming.” “Life under the Taliban” Pines. NY Times, Nov. 23 2001.
One Taliban list of prohibitions included:
pork, pig, pig oil, anything made from human hair, satellite dishes, cinematography, and equipment that produces the joy of
music, pool tables, chess, masks, alcohol, tapes, computers, VCRs, television, anything that propagates sex and is full of music,
wine, lobster, nail polish, firecrackers, statues, sewing catalogs, pictures, Christmas cards. [11]
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Theft was punished by the amputation of a hand, rape and murder by public
execution. Married adulterers were stoned to death. In Kabul, punishments
were carried out in front of crowds in the city's former soccer stadium.
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http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/taliban/life-under-the-taliban
Taliban’s Islam
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Women covered in full
covering, a Chadri.
No education for girls.
Global Jihad
Focus on destruction of all
things modern and western,
or even other Muslim
countries that communicate
with non-Muslim countries.
The desire to return to the
“golden era” of Islam (the
1400’s)
Everyone Else’s Islam
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Head covered, a Hijab.
Internal Jihad
According to the Averroes
Foundation “Developing in
the modern world,
developing relationships
with other nations, being a
citizen of the world”
What is al-Qaeda?
• Al Qaeda is a stateless (meaning without a
country) terrorist organization.
• It is led and financed by Osama bin Laden, a
radical Shi’a Muslim.
When did al-Qaeda form?
• The beginnings of al-Qaeda go back to 1979
when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.
The Birth of Al Qaeda

During the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan Osama
Bin Laden played a huge role in recruiting young
Muslim fighters to the cause of global jihad.
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While he participated in few actual battles in
Afghanistan, Bin Laden became known for his
generous funding of the jihad against the Soviets.

While the Taliban wanted only Afghanistan for their
own, Bin Laden had dreams of spreading this
movement all around the world.
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What changes did Jimmy Carter bring to the
presidency?
How did Carter deal with domestic issues?
What ideals guided Carter’s foreign policy?
What factors influenced the outcome of the
1980 election?
Although Gerald Ford had the advantage of being the
incumbent, or current office holder, he faced strong
opposition from Republicans inside his own party
during the 1976 presidential election. Democrat
James Earl (“Jimmy”) Carter won the election by a
narrow margin.
 Carter had no national political experience and lacked
an ability to win reluctant politicians over to his side.
Nevertheless, he was well-liked for his informal
approach to the presidency.
 As President, Carter appointed more women and
minorities to his staff than previous administrations.

Economic Issues
 Carter had inherited an unstable economy in
which inflation and unemployment continued
to grow.
 In response, Carter cut federal spending,
mostly on social programs. This cut angered
liberal Democrats.
 As bond prices fell and interest rates rose,
Americans lost confidence in Carter and his
economic advisors.
Deregulation
 Carter felt that government controls on certain
industries, put in place in the 1800s and early
1900s, hurt competition and increased consumer
costs.
 His move toward deregulation, the reduction or
removal of government controls, affected the
energy, railroad, trucking, and airline industries.
This move, which continued during the next two
administrations, also angered many Democrats.
Energy Issues During Carter’s Presidency
 Carter’s Energy Plan — To save on rising oil prices, Carter
asked Americans to conserve fuel in their homes, cars, and
businesses. He also created a new Cabinet department,
the Department of Energy.
 Response to Carter’s Energy Plan — States that produced
oil and gas fiercely opposed Carter’s conservation plans.
The National Energy Act, passed in 1978, incorporated
many of Carter’s directives.
 Alternative Energy Sources and Three Mile Island — One
of Carter’s goals was to seek alternative energy sources. A
partial meltdown of a nuclear reactor at Three Mile Island
near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, eroded people’s confidence
in nuclear power.
Carter’s concern for moral values influenced his civil rights actions.
Soon after taking office, he granted amnesty, or a general pardon,
to those who had evaded the draft during the Vietnam War.
 Many of Carter’s staff appointments won the approval of African
Americans. However, many African Americans were disappointed
by his weak support for social programs.
 Affirmative action policies, which aimed to make up for past
discrimination against women and minorities, were a controversial
issue during Carter’s presidency. In the landmark case Regents of
the University of California v. Bakke, the Supreme Court ruled that
race could be a factor in school admissions but that numerical
quotas could not be used.
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Camp David Accords
 In 1978, Carter brought Egyptian President
Anwar el-Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister
Menachem Begin together for negotiations at
Camp David.
 The resulting framework for Middle East peace,
known as the Camp David Accords, was an
important step toward peace in the Middle East.
Under its terms, Israel agreed to withdraw from
the Sinai Peninsula, and Egypt became the first
Arab country to recognize Israel officially.
Soviet-American Relations
 Although détente was at a high point when
Carter took office, by the end of his term it was
effectively dead.
 Soviets were angered by Carter’s support of
Soviet dissidents, writers and other activists who
criticized the actions of their government.
 Although a second round of Strategic Arms
Limitation Talks (SALT II) was begun, the
resulting treaty was never ratified. Still, both
nations followed its terms.
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Late in 1979, the Soviet Union invaded
neighboring Afghanistan to bolster a Sovietsupported government there. Carter called
the invasion “a clear threat to the peace” and
took steps to show American disapproval of
the Soviet aggression.
As one of these steps, Carter imposed a
boycott on the 1980 summer Olympic Games
to be held in Moscow. Sixty other nations
eventually joined the boycott.
In January 1979, revolution broke out in Iran, replacing
its pro-American shah, Mohammed Reza Shah
Pahlevi, with Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, an antiWestern leader.
 When Carter allowed the displaced shah to enter the
United States for medical treatment, angry Khomeini
followers seized the American embassy in Tehran,
Iran’s capital. Fifty-two Americans were taken
hostage and moved from place to place over the
course of 444 days.
 Carter’s failed attempts to secure the hostages’
freedom decreased his popularity and made his
chances for reelection appear slim.
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By the end of Carter’s term, his administration
had lost the confidence of many Americans.
Although Carter ran for reelection, the nation
instead chose conservative Republican
candidate Ronald Reagan by a landslide.
In early 1981, following months of secret talks,
Iran agreed to release the hostages. President
Reagan sent Carter to greet the hostages as they
arrived at a U.S. military base in West Germany.