Final Exam Schedule
Thursday
06/14
2:00pm
Exam Structure
• 40 multiple choice questions
• Choose 3 out of 4 (short) essay questions
• Emphasis will be on the following chapters
– 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 14, & 16 (assigned
pages)
– Some multiple choice questions and all essay
questions will be based on the Blackgold
Cases, Bob Knowlton, L.E.S., and The Politics
of Performance Appraisal
• bring clean copies of these cases to exam
Opportunities to Review using
Cases
• What can we learn about the situation
described in each of the cases using
concepts in the chapters listed?
• Blackgold (Frankie, Prakesh, Monique and
Eddie)
• Bob Knowlton
• LES
• Performance Evaluation
Chapters to review
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
4 – social perception/diversity
6 & 7 – motivation
8 – feedback, rewards, reinforcement
9 – making decisions
10 – groups and teams
12 – communication
16 (assigned pages) – managing change
14 – leadership
13 – influence, power, and politics
11 – managing conflict
Tips
• Questions will generally be in the form of
an application of a concept
– When faced with this situation . . .?
– This situation is called . . . ?
• NOTE: The following slides are intended
as a guide on topics to cover for your
review.
Social Perception: A Social
Information Processing Model
Stage 1
Selective Attention/
Comprehension
Competing
environmental
stimuli:
* People
* Events
* Objects
Stage 2
Encoding
and Simplification
A
B
C
D
E
F
A
Interpretation
and
categorization
C
F
4-4
Stereotypes
A stereotype is an
individual’s set of beliefs
about the characteristics of a group of
people.
4-5
Table 4-1
Common Perceptual Errors
• Halo: A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then
uses the impression to bias ratings about the object.
• Leniency: A personal characteristic that leads an individual to
consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive
fashion.
• Central Tendency: The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and
rate people and objects as average or neutral.
• Recency Effects: The tendency to remember recent information. If
the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated
negatively.
• Contrast Effects: The tendency to evaluate people or objects by
comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or
objects.
4-7a
Kelley’s Model of Attribution
Basic Premise: An attribution is based on the consensus,
distinctiveness, and consistency of the observed behavior.
 Consensus
- Involves comparing an individual’s behavior with that of his or
her peers.
- LOW CONSENSUS indicates an individual is different
from peers.
Distinctiveness
- Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments
on one task with the behavior or accomplishments from
other tasks.
- Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situation
where the current behavior or result is significantly
different from typical behavior or results on other
tasks.
4-7b
Kelley’s Model of Attribution
(continued)
 Consistency
- Involves comparing a person’s behavior or
accomplishments on a given task over time.
- High consistency implies that a person performs a
certain task the same, time after time.
Predictions
- Internal or personal attributions are made when a behavior
is associated with low consensus and distinctiveness,
and high consistency.
- External or environmental attributions are made when a
behavior is related with high consensus and
distinctiveness, and low consistency.
Need Theories
Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies
that arouse behavior.
Maslow’s Need Theory
•Motivation is a function of five basic needsphysiological safety, love, esteem, and selfactualization.
McClelland’s Need Theory
•The needs for achievement, affiliation, and power
affect behavior.
Approaches to Job Design
1. The Mechanistic Approach focuses on identifying the
most efficient way to perform a job. Employees are trained
and rewarded to perform their jobs accordingly.
2. Motivational Approaches these techniques (job
enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and job
characteristics) attempt to improve employees’ affective and
attitudinal reactions and behavioral outcomes.
3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches
Biological techniques focus on reducing employees’ physical
strain, effort, fatigue, and health complaints. The PerceptualMotor Approach emphasizes the reliability of work outcomes
by examining error rates, accidents, and workers’ feedback
about facilities and equipment.
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model
Motivators
No Satisfaction
Jobs that do not
offer achievement,
recognition,
stimulating work,
responsibility,
and advancement.
Satisfaction
Jobs offering
achievement,
recognition,
stimulating work,
responsibility,
and advancement.
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model
(cont.)
Hygiene Factors
Dissatisfaction
Jobs with poor
company policies,
and administration,
technical supervision
salary, interpersonal
relationships with
supervisors, and
working conditions.
No Dissatisfaction
Jobs with good
company policies,
and administration,
technical supervision,
salary, interpersonal
relationships with
supervisors, and
working conditions.
Causes of Job Satisfaction
• Need Fulfillment: Satisfaction is based on the extent to
which a job satisfies a person’s needs.
• Discrepancies: Satisfaction is determined by the extent to
which an individual receives what he or she expects from a job.
• Value Attainment: Satisfaction results from the extent to
which a job allows fulfillment of one’s work values.
• Equity: Satisfaction is a function of how “fairly” an individual is
treated at work.
• Trait/Genetic Components: Satisfaction is partly a function
of personal traits and genetic factors.
7-2b
Figure 7-1b
Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)
B. Negative Inequity
Self
$2
= $2 per hour
1 hour
Other
$3
1 hour
= $3 per hour
7-2c
Figure 7-1c
Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)
C. Positive Inequity
Other
Self
$3
= $3 per hour
1 hour
$2
= $1 per hour
1 hours
8-5
Nontraditional Feedback
 Upward Feedback: Subordinates evaluate their
manager’s style and performance.
 360-Degree Feedback: Specific (typically
anonymous) feedback generated by one’s manager,
peers, subordinates, and other key people.
 For group discussion: Are you in favor of this
trend toward nontraditional feedback? Explain. What
are its limits?
Simon’s Normative Model of
Decision Making
•Based
on the notion of bounded rationality, i.e.
decision makers face a variety of constraints
•Decision making is characterized by
* limited information processing
* use of judgmental heuristics (rules, shortcuts)
* satisficing
Decision Making Styles
High
Analytical
Conceptual
Directive
Behavioral
Low
Tasks and Technical
Concerns
People and Social
Concerns
Value Orientation
10-3a
Figure 10-1
Tuckman’s Five-Stage Theory
of Group Development
Performing
Adjourning
Norming
Storming
Forming
Dependence/
interdependence
Independence
Return to
Independence
More Formal Group Problem
Solving Techniques
• Brainstorming - disciplined process
– Silent idea (optional)
– Ideas/opinions solicited and written on a board,
disallowing criticisms, allowing piggy-backing on
ideas, clarification
• Delphi technique is another, more formal form of
brainstorming. Involves several rounds of
questionnaire, feedback, etc. Useful in cases
where participants are not in the same place.
16-3
Lewin’s Change Model
•Unfreezing
- Creates the motivation to change
- Encourages the replacement of old behaviors and attitudes with
those desired by management
- Entails devising ways to reduce barriers to change
- Creates psychological safety
• Changing
- Provides new information, new behavioral models, or new ways of
looking at things
- Helps employees learn new concepts or points of view
- Role models, mentors, experts, benchmarking results, and
training are useful mechanisms to facilitate change
•Refreezing
- Helps employees integrate the changed behavior or
attitude into their normal way of doing things
- Positive reinforcement is used to reinforce the desired
change
- Coaching and modeling help reinforce the stability of
change
16-7a
Resistance To Change
Resistance to Change: an emotional/behavioral response
to real or imagined work change.
The leading reasons why people resist change are:
•
•
•
•
•
An individual’s predisposition toward change
Surprise and fear of the unknown
Climate of mistrust
Fear of failure
Loss of status and/or job security
13-2a
Nine Generic Influence Tactics
 Rational persuasion. Trying to convince someone with
reason, logic, or facts.
 Inspirational appeals. Trying to build enthusiasm by
appealing to others’ emotions, ideals, or values.
 Consultation. Getting others to participate in planning, making
decisions, and changes.
 Ingratiation. Getting someone in a good mood prior to making
a request; being friendly, helpful, and using praise or flattery.
 Personal appeals. Referring to friendship and loyalty when
making a request.
13-2b
Nine Generic Influence Tactics
 Exchange. Making express or implied promises and trading
favors.
 Coalition tactics. Getting others to support your effort to
persuade someone.
 Pressure. Demanding compliance or using intimidation or
threats.
 Legitimating tactics. Basing a request on one’s authority or
right, organizational rules or polices, or express or implied
support from superiors.
11-3a
Antecedents of Conflict
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Incompatible personalities or value systems.
Overlapping or unclear job boundaries.
Competition for limited resources.
Interdepartment/intergroup competition.
Inadequate communication.
Interdependent tasks.
Organizational complexity.
11-3b
Antecedents of Conflict (continued)
• Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or
rules.
• Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure.
• Collective decision making.
• Decision making by consensus.
• Unmet expectations.
• Unresolved or suppressed conflict.
Tips for Managers Whose Employees
Are Having a Personality Conflict
1. Follow company policies for diversity, antidiscrimination, and sexual harassment.
2. Investigate and document conflict.
3. If appropriate, take corrective action (e.g., feedback
or behavior modification).
4. If necessary, attempt informal dispute resolution.
5. Refer difficult conflicts to human resource specialists
or hired counselors for formal resolution attempts and
other interventions.
11-6
Figure 11-1
Minimizing Inter-group Conflict: An
Updated Contact Model
Level of perceived
Inter-group conflict tends
to increase when:
• Conflict within the
group is high
• There are negative
interactions between
groups (or between
members of those
groups)
• Influential third-party
gossip about other group
is negative
Recommended actions:
• Work to eliminate specific negative
interactions between groups (and
members).
• Conduct team building to reduce
intragroup conflict and prepare
employees for cross-functional teamwork.
• Encourage personal friendships and
good working relationships across
groups and departments.
• Foster positive attitudes toward
members of other groups (empathy,
compassion, sympathy).
• Avoid or neutralize negative gossip
across groups or departments.
11-8
Figure 11-2
Concern for Others
Five Conflict-Handling Styles
High
Integrating
Obliging
Compromising
Low
Dominating
Avoiding
High
Low
Concern for Self
Source: MA Rahim, “A Strategy for Managing
Conflict in Complex Organizations, Human Relations,
January 1985, p 84. Used with author’s permission.
These type of topics may lend
themselves more to “definition
type” questions
8-3
Ch 8: Feedback
Feedback: “Objective information about individual or
collective performance.”
Functions of Feedback:
- Instructional
- Motivational
Sources of Feedback
-Task
-Self
- Others
14-2b
Trait Theory (continued)
•
Gender and leadership
- men and women were seen as displaying more task and
social leadership, respectively
- women used a more democratic or participative style
than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive
style than women
- men and women were equally assertive
- women executives, when rated by their peers, managers
and direct reports, scored higher than their male
counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria
14-3
Behavioral Styles Theory
• Ohio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader
behavior.
1. Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with
followers
2. Initiating Structure: organizing and defining what group
members should be doing
• University of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles
that were similar to the Ohio State studies
- one style was employee centered and the other was job
centered
• Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid represents four
leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and
concern for people
• Research shows that there is not one best style of
leadership. The effectiveness of a particular leadership style
depends on the situation at hand.
11-4
Desired Outcomes of Conflict
Agreement: Strive for equitable and fair agreements that
last.
Stronger relationships: Build bridges of goodwill and
trust for the future.
Learning: Greater self-awareness and creative problem
solving.