Psychology
Chapter 2, Section 1
What is Research?
Use the textbook to define the following:
1. sample – the small group of participants, out of the total number available, that a
researcher studies.
2. naturalistic observation – research methods in which the psychologists observe the
subjects in a natural setting without interfering.
3. case study – research method that involves an intensive investigation of one or more
participants.
4. survey – research method in which information is obtained by asking many
individuals a fixed set of questions.
5. longitudinal study – research method in which data are collected about a group of
participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain
the same during development.
6. cross-sectional study – research method in which data are collected from groups of
participants of different ages and compared so that conclusions can be drawn about
differences due to age.
7. correlation – the measure of the relationship between two variables.
8. hypothesis – an educated guess about the relationship between two variables.
9. variable – any factor that is capable of change.
10. experimental group – the group to which an independent variable is applied.
11. control group – the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group
except that the experimental treatment (the independent variable) is not applied.
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Jane Goodall: (1934-present); British zoologist that worked with chimps in the
wild. Lived amongst the chimps to observe their daily activities. She discovered
(after 30 years) chimps hunt and eat larger animals and make and use tools more
than any other species except humans. She used “naturalistic observation”.
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Researchers: Figure 2.2
1. Ask specific questions about a limited topic or hypothesis.
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2. Look for evidence.
3. Choose the research method depending on the topic.
Decisions to be made prior to the research:
a. sample – It is not possible to study ALL examples of a certain
phenomena in the entire population, so a smaller sample must be
drawn  a relatively small group out of the total population under
study.
1. representative v. nonrepresentative: A sample must be
representative of the population the researcher is studying. A
sample that is not, won’t describe the population.
Ways to avoid a non-representative sample:
2. random sample: Each individual in the population has an equal
chance of being represented. Ex: like drawing names and
numbers from a hat.
3. stratified sample: deliberately pick individuals who represent
various subgroups in the population being studied; based on their
proportion in the population.
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The goals of research:
1. Describe behavior.
2. Explain the causes of behavior.
3. Predict the circumstances under which certain behaviors may
occur again.
4. Control certain behaviors.
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Methods of research: Accomplish the goals of research.
1. naturalistic observation: Researchers observe the subjects in
their natural environment to avoid disturbing the people or
animals. This prevents the subjects from acting in a particular way
due to the researcher’s presence. The researcher tends to be
concealed.
2. case study: involves the intensive study of a person or group.
Involves long-term observations with diaries, tests, and interviews.
(Piaget and Freud used this method in their theories). These are
descriptive in nature and do not prove or disprove anything as
researchers decisions might not be correct.
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3. surveys: An interview, questionnaire, or a combination of both;
a practical way to gather data on the attitudes, beliefs, and
experiences of a large number of people. These are quick to
administer and easy to keep uniform, but lack the depth of a case
study.
4. longitudinal studies: researchers observe the same group of
people at regular intervals over a period of years to determine
whether behavior/feelings have changed and how. PROBLEM:
time-consuming and a potential to lose participants over time.
PRO: a good way to examine consistencies/inconsistencies in
behavior over time.
5. cross-sectional studies: individuals are grouped on the basis of
age; then groups are randomly sampled and are surveyed, tested, or
observed at the same time. PRO: less expensive and less timeconsuming. (Ex: 3, 5, 7 year olds); can compare the different
ages.
6. correlations: examine relationships between two sets of
observations. Goes beyond basic description, but does NOT imply
causation.
a. positive correlation: one variable decreases/increases as
the other increases/decreases. EX: IQ scores and academic
success
b. negative correlation: one variable increases as the other
decreases. Ex: More tennis practice, less errors in the
game.
7. experiments: experimentation enables the investigator to
control the situation and to decrease the possibility that unnoticed,
outside variables will influence the results.
a. hypothesis: educated guess about the expected outcome
of the experiment; what the researcher “expects” to find,
also specifying the important variables in the study.
b. variables: conditions and behaviors that are subject to
change
Two Main Types in an Experiment:
1. independent variable: “the treatment”; the
variable the experimenters change or alter so they
can observe its effects. EX: # of hours one studies
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2. dependent variable: “the effect”; the variable
that changes in relation to the independent variable.
Ex: scores on the exam
c. experimental group: the group that gets administered the
independent variable.
d. control group: treated the same as the experimental
group , but don’t receive the IV, as a point of comparison to
ensure that the DV is caused by the IV.
e. replication: Psychologists do not fully accept the results
of their own or other people’s studies, unless they have
been replicated  duplicated by at least one other
psychologist with different participants, to try to reduce the
hidden flaws within the experiment.
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Ethics: methods of conduct or standards, for proper and responsible behavior.
American Psychological Association (APA): set of ethical principles published in
regards to collection, storage, and use of psychological data.
1. Research in a way to minimize misleading results, also protecting
participant confidentiality.
2. Uphold dignity and welfare of participants.
3. must have an agreement (prior to starting) of rights and responsibilities
of researchers and participants – informed consent
4. must obey all state and federal laws and professional codes of conduct
5. informed consent must be obtained prior to starting the research
6. deception can only be used when benefits outweigh risks. Can’t be
used about aspects that might influence a participant’s willingness to
participate.
7. sharing/utilizing data, offering inducements, minimizing evasiveness,
and providing participants with info about the study.
8. Researchers have attempted to balance the rights of animals with the
need for advancing the health of humans through research – controversial
debate.
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