Produced by Oliver Hanisch  oliver-hanisch@ssheli.com  310 980 6330
Pilot Board of Review
Revision 7
(4 -14 -2007)
Total Questions: 373
Number of Subject
Areas: 19
Subject Areas Passed:
_1
_2
_3
_4
_5
_6
_7
_8
_9
_ 10
_ 11
_ 12
_ 13
_ 14
_ 15
_ 16
_ 17
_ 18
_ 19
This Pilot Board of Review can be used for evaluation of VFR pilots at all
levels. It is preset with questions for the Private Pilot level.
For Commercial Pilot and CFI just substitute the questions pertaining to
the specific rating with the appropriate one for your rating.
For Commercial:
Add FAR part 119. AC 120-12A for common carriage vs. non-common carriage
Do not forget the new 91.146 & 91.147
For CFI:
Add FOIs, and the appropriate certification, endorsement and testing requirements per
61.39 / 61.83 / 61.85 / 61.87 / 61.89 / 61.93 / 61.95
For endorsement requirements refer to: Advisory Circular AC 61.65E
For Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM) and Crew Resource Management (CRM)
knowledge, please refer to Advisory Circular AC 60-22 on www.faa.gov
Student’s Name: ____________________
Phone Number: __________________
Date: _______________________
Total passed: __
Take: 1 _ 2 _ 3 _
__ Ready (All 19 subject areas should be passed before the student is approved for the
check ride) It is at the examiners discretion to decide if a student is ready to pass the oral.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 1: __
Passing if 12 correct
Section 1: The pilot
Certification:
_ 1. In what section of the FARs can you find information about pilot certificates? 61
_ 2. What documents do you have to have with you when you fly? 61.3
_ 3. What do you have to do when your address changes in regards to your pilot certificate? 61.60
_ 4. What kind of medical certificate do you need for a private pilot certificate? 61.23
_ 5. How long is it valid? 61.23
_ 6. What other medical certificates are there and how long are they valid? 61.23
_ 7. What are the eligibility requirements for a private pilot certificate? 61.103
_ 8. What are the privileges and limitations for a private pilot? 61.113
_ 9. What does “pilot in command” mean? What are the responsibilities of a PIC? 91.3 and 1.1 p.6 FAR ‘07
_ 10. Does a private pilot certificate expire? 61.19
_ 11. How do you keep your private pilot privileges? 61.56
_ 12. How about your privileges to carry passengers? 61.57
_ 13. What is the SFAR 73 of Part 61? Explain how and why they address Robinson helicopters.
P.31 in FAR ‘07
_ 14. What hours should you log in your logbook? 61.51
_ 15. What are aircraft categories, classes, and types in reference to pilot certification? 1.1
Categories: Airplane, Rotorcraft, Glider, Powered Lift, Lighter than Air.
Classes: within those categories
Cat. Airplanes: Single engine land, single engine sea, multiengine land,
multiengine sea
Cat. Rotorcraft: Gyroplane, Helicopter
Cat. Glider: N/A
Cat. Powered Lift: N/A
Cat. Lighter than Air: Airship, Balloon
Type: Specific aircraft model. e.g. Make: Robinson Model R22 if type rating is required.
(Type rating is required if aircraft is specified as a large aircraft which means that it has a max.
take-off weight of more then 12,500 lbs. Or if specified by a type certificate procedure of a
specific aircraft) 61.31
ATTENTION: You are not rated in Type, unless you fly an a/c that requires a type rating (see
above)
_16. How long is a temporary pilot certificate valid? 61.17 – 120 days
Subject 2: __
Passing if 11 correct
Aeromedical Factors:
_ 1. How do you make sure that you are in physical and mental condition to fly safely? I AM SAFE
8-1-1 Add “A” for Attitude and “Eating” to the “E” for Emotions.
_ 2. How does stress and fatigue effect us? 8-1-1 (e) and (f) – Impaired judgment and decision
making capabilities, slow reaction, ALL THAT leads to POOR RISK MANAGEMENT.
_ 3. What is Hypoxia? How can we recognize it? How can we prevent it? What are the regulations?
A lack of oxygen to the brain, organs and tissues.
8-1-2 (a) + add types of hypoxia: hypoxic, hypemic, histotoxic, stagnant.
Ref. Jepp. Priv. Man. + Reg.: 91.211
_ 4. What is hyperventilation? What causes it? How do we treat it? 8-1-3
_ 5. Why can middle ear and sinus problems be a problem for flight? 8-1-2 (b) and (c)
Vision in Flight
_ 6. How does the human eye work? Jeppesen Private Pilot Manual p. 10-2
Visual images are projected through the pupil and the lens onto the retina where
they stimulate photosensitive cells called “cones” and “rods”. The cones have the
highest concentration in the center of the eye, the “fovea”. Cones work well in
bright light and are sensitive to colors. The rods are located at the outside areas of
the retina. Rods are 10,000 times more sensitive to light than the cones and work
well at night. At the attachment point of the optic nerve there are no cones or rods,
this produces a “blind spot”. Each eye compensates for the other’s blind spot.
Don’t mistake this blind spot for the blind spot that we encounter at night.
See “night operations” in subject area 18 of this document.
_ 7. What is empty field myopia? 8-1-6 c. 5.
If the human eyes do not have anything to focus on (e.g. in intense haze, fog, etc.) they
relax and focus on nothing, so to speak, (about 10-30 feet ahead). That leads to looking
without really seeing anything. Aircraft in the distance might be missed.
Sometimes little bugs or spots on the windshield trigger this tendency to want to focus on
something and become aware of that bug for example instead seeing anything outside.
Also see: Night myopia in subject area 18 of this document.
_ 8. What could lead to illusions in flight? 8-1-5
The vestibular system in the inner ear works with fluid in the semi-circular canals to
provide a sense of direction and movement. It only works reliable in conjunction with our
vision and if it is not exposed to conflicting messages that could be produced by a lack of
visual reference or even by visual illusions. It leads to vestibular disorientation and
eventually to spatial disorientation.
_ 9. What is Spatial disorientation? And what is it primarily caused by? 8-1-5 (b)
A lack of visual reference. A discrepancy between the central vision and the peripheral
vision, as well as a combination of visual illusions and/or lack of vision, while subjected to
motions and forces in the aircraft.
_ 10. How can we get out of it? 8-1-5 (b) (1)
Maintain visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the ground or flight instruments.
_ 11. Demonstrate a basic knowledge of the following:
Physical illusions:
Various types of vestibular disorientation:
The leans
----------------------------8-1-5 (b) (2)
Coriolis Illusion ----------------------------8-1-5 (b) (2) (a)
Graveyard Spin ----------------------------8-1-5 (b) (2) (b)
Graveyard Spiral ----------------------------8-1-5 (b) (2) (c)
Somatogravic Illusion ------------------------------8-1-5 (b) (2) (d)
Inversion Illusion ------------------------------8-1-5 (b) (2) (e)
Elevator Illusion ------------------------------8-1-5 (b) (2) (f)
Visual illusions:
Illusion of False Horizon ------------------------------8-1-5 (b)(2)(g)
Autokinesis ------------------------------8-1-5 (b)(2)(h)
Illusions leading to landing errors ----------------- 8-1-5 (b)(3)(a)
Runway width illusion
----------------- 8-1-5 (b)(3)(b)
Runway and terrain slopes illusion ----- 8-1-5 (b)(3)(c)
Featureless terrain illusion --------------- 8-1-5 (b)(3)(d)
Atmospheric illusions --------------8-1-5 (b)(3)(e)
Ground lighting illusions ----------------8-1-5 (b)(3)(f)
_ 12. What is Flicker Vertigo and what can it lead to? Jeppesen Private Pilot Manual p. 10-8
Rotorblades interrupting sunlight, or strobe light. 4-20 cycles/second.
Seizures, unconsciousness.
_ 13. Why do we become motion sick? How can you prevent it or get rid of it? Jeppesen Private
Pilot Manual p. 10-12. Rhythmic, erratic physical motion can cause intense feelings of
instability and disrupts the function of the vestibular system leading to motion
sickness.
Maintain visual reference outside, get fresh air, try to calm your system down and relax.
_ 14. Why is there a danger of carbon monoxide poisoning in engine powered flight? What do you
do if you suspect it? What do you do if you notice it? 8-1-4
_ 15. What are the dangers of SCUBA diving combined with flying? What is suggested to prevent
them? 8-1-2 (d)
Section 2: The Aircraft
Subject 3: __
Passing if 12 correct
Documents and Airworthiness
_ 1. What are aircraft categories and classes in respect to certification of aircraft? What category is
the R22 in?
Categories: Normal, transport, utility, acrobatic, restricted, experimental, limited,
provisional and primary. Jepp. Priv. Pilot Manual p. 1-20 and FAR 1.1
See also: Operating limitations for (91.313 restricted), (91.315 limited),
(91.317 provisional), (91.319 experimental), (91.325 primary) categories.
Classes: Airplane-Rotorcraft, Glider-Balloon, Landplane-Seaplane. FAR 1.1
R22 = Normal Category
_ 2. What standard documentation of the aircraft exists?

Type Certificate Data Sheet (part of Type Cert. # H10WE) available at: http://faa.gov
Direct link: TC: H10WE



14 CFR Part 27 —AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: NORMAL CATEGORY
ROTORCRAFT, available at: http://faa.gov
Direct link: Normal Category Rotorcraft
Airworthiness Certificate: located in the aircraft per 91.203 (b)
Registration: (or application for registration (pink) for the first 90 days):
located in the aircraft per 91.203 (b)

Maintenance logbooks (Airframe and Engine): should be readily available in the facilities
where the aircraft is operated from.

POH (Pilot’s Operating Handbook)
also called: AFM (Approved Flight Manual),
also called: RFM (Rotorcraft Flight Manual) required per 91.9
_ 3. Which ones do we have to have in the aircraft during flight?
ARROW: Airworthiness Certificate, Registration, Radio License (for int’l flights),
Operating Limitations, Weight and Balance data (is in the installed equipment list).
Per 91.20 and /91.9
_ 4. Which ones have to be visible to passengers or crew? Airworthiness Certificate. 91.203 (b)
_ 5. Where can you find the operating limitations? List all places including cockpit, cabin, and
instrument markings.

14 CFR Part 27

Type certificate data sheet (TC: H10WE)

Section 2 of POH, placards, cockpit instruments.
_ 6. Where is the list of all equipment that is installed in the aircraft?
Weight and Balance section of POH (section 6) of a specific aircraft.
_ 7. How long is the airworthiness certificate and the registration valid?
The airworthiness certificate is valid:
As long as the aircraft is kept in airworthy condition, which means that it conforms to
its type design and is maintained according to the regulations, and ADs are complied
with. FAA-H-8083-25
 See attached handout about airworthiness.
The registration expires:
when the owner cancels it,
the aircraft is destroyed or scrapped
30 days after the owner passed away
the owner loses US citizenship
the aircraft is registered under the laws of a foreign country
or the ownership of the aircraft is transferred. FAR 47.41
You can also find all those reasons for the expiration on the backside of the registration
_ 8. How do you as pilot in command determine the airworthiness of your aircraft as required per 91.7?
Airworthy means per 14 CFR part 3.5
The aircraft,
a. -Must conform to its type design (type certificate).
Conformity to its type design is attained when the required and proper components
are installed and they are consistent with the drawings, specifications, and other data
that are a part of the type certificate.
Conformity would include all applicable Airworthiness Directives (ADs) applicable
supplemental type certificates and field-approved alterations,
Find the Type Certificate Data Sheet (H10WE)and ADs at http://www.faa.gov
Direct link: H10WE
b.
-It is in condition for safe operation
Which means that the aircraft has to meet its maintenance requirements. 91.409
and the instrument and equipment requirements per 91.205 and 91.207
- Lastly the PIC has to determine if the aircraft is in acceptable overall conditions e.g.
deteriorated conditions
_ 9. What document do you need to fly an aircraft that is safe for flight but does not meet the
requirements for a valid airworthiness certificate? Where do you get it?
Special flight permit from FSDO. 21.197/21.199
_ 10. What are the FAA equipment / instrument requirements for your aircraft? Day / Night?
Acronyms: Day: CAMA(L)S FOOT 91.205 (b) Night: CAMA(L)S FOOT & FLAP 91.205 (c)
 See attached handout about CAMA(L)S FOOT
_ 11. Do we need an electric landing light if we fly at night ?
If we fly for hire, yes. If you fly privately, no per 205 (c). But we need one per Robinson
regardless.
_ 12. What are the equipment requirements for the R22 per Robinson due to part 27
(Airworthiness Standards - Normal Category Rotorcraft) requirements?
POH in the “Flight and Maneuver Limitations” and “Kinds of Operation Limitation”.
Acronym: COLLAG-CAT-TACH
C = cylinder head temp
O = OAT (outside air temperature)
L = low rotor RPM warning system
L = lights for night flight
A = alternator
G = governor
CAT = carburetor air temp gauge
TACH = rotor tachometer
Cat/TACH is required per 14 CFR part 27 and 91.9
_ 13. What is an AD? What is an SB?
- AD = Airworthiness Directive: Directive enforced by the FAA.
Legally enforceable rule that addresses safety issues of aircraft. FAR part 39
- SB = Service Bulletin: Notice from the aircraft manufacturer that addresses the need for
certain actions performed on the aircraft.
It is not mandatory in nature, but could be converted or used by the FAA as an AD or
part of an AD.
Although manufactures try to make them a part of the manufacturer’s requirements for
continued airworthiness. Legally it is non-regulatory.
_ 14. Who is primarily responsible for keeping an aircraft in airworthy condition?
91.403 (a) Owner / Operator.
_ 15. Who is responsible to ensure that the aircraft is airworthy and in safe to fly condition before the
flight?
Pilot in command per 91.7
_ 16. Besides determining airworthiness, how do you ensure that the aircraft is safe to fly?
Preflight inspection (function of equipment, overall condition of aircraft)
Subject 4: __
Passing if 6 correct
Maintenance
_ 1. What section of the FARs deals with maintenance? 43
_ 2. Where do you expect to find the maintenance logbooks? Aircraft facilities
_ 3. What is the general maintenance schedule required for aircraft per the FAA?
91.403(c) / 91.405 / 91.409 / (91.411 if flying IFR) / 91.413
A-L-T-H-A-T
A= Annual
L= Life limited parts
T= TBO (Time Between Overhaul) 2,200 per the Robinson maintenance manual
H= Hundred hour inspection for hire and flight instruction
A= Airworthiness Directives
T= Transponder every 24 months
_ 4. Is a 100 hour inspection required for the R22 by Robinson even if the aircraft is not used for
hire?
Yes. POH section 8 and the Robinson Maintenance Manual
_ 5. What are the required inspections for the instruments and equipment?
Transponder every 24 months per 91.411 / 91.413
Pitot static system every 24 months ONLY if used for IFR. 91.411
VOR every 30 days if used for IFR. 91.171
ELT if installed, must be inspected every 12 months.
The battery must be replaced or recharged after 1 hour of accumulative use or 50% of
its useful life span, or it is past its expiration date on the ELT housing. 91.207(c)
_ 6. Can you fly past the hourly requirements of your scheduled inspections?
Yes, up to 10 hours in route to maintenance facility. 91.409 (b)
_ 7. What kind of maintenance is a rated pilot allowed to do?
Preventive maintenance per 43.3 (g) and specified in appendix A of 43 (c)
_ 8. Who is responsible for the proper maintenance entries in the aircraft logbooks?
Owner / operator 91.405 (b)
Subject 5: __
Passing if 5 correct
MEL
_ 1. What is an MEL?
Minimum Equipment List: A list of equipment that may be inoperative in-flight since it is
not essential for safe flight.
_ 2. Do we have an MEL for an R22 here at our location?
No
_ 3. What is the procedure to follow for flights with inoperative equipment with an MEL and without
an MEL? 91.213 also see AC 91-67
If MEL exists for the aircraft:
 If the inoperative equipment is part of the MEL, and not required by airworthiness
requirements under which the aircraft is type certificated, or required by an AD or any
other special conditions you can fly after following the provision in the MEL
 If equipment is not on MEL, the aircraft is not airworthy; repair before flight.
If no MEL exists for the aircraft:
Check if the equipment is required by the
VFR day type certificate per the airworthiness regulation for that aircraft.
Check if required by the aircraft equipment list or Kind of Operations Equipment list.
Check if required by 91.205 CAMA(L)S FOOT / FLAP
Check if required by an AD.
Then remove or deactivate the equipment and placard the cockpit control
“inoperative”. If it required maintenance, do it per part 43 and record the
maintenance per 43.9 (a)
The procedure to approve an aircraft with inoperative equipment without an MEL for flight,
is called “maintenance referral”
_ 4. How can we get an MEL?
91.213 (a) (2) Request it from FSDO. Use the Master Minimum Equipment List
Available on www.faa.gov (Direct Link: MMEL) as an outline to produce your MEL for a
specific aircraft and submit it to the FSDO.
_ 5. Can we circumnavigate the entire procedure by attaining a special flight permit?
Yes. 91.213 (e)
Subject 6: __
Passing if 16 correct
Helicopter components and operation of Systems
_ 1. What are the three most common rotor systems?
Fully articulated sytem:
Minimum three blades systems that allow the blades to react to the flight forces by moving
vertically about flapping hinges (flapping), and horizontally about lead/lag hinges (hunting
or lead/lagging), and change the pitch about the feathering bearings to increase lift and
thrust or decrease it.
Semi-rigid (teeter hinge)system:
The semi rigid system is called semi rigid, because a unit of two blades are rigidly
connected in plane and then allowed to be connected to the main rotor shaft by one
attachment point about which it can move – teeter-. So it is not completely rigid, but half of
the system is rigid. The blade unit.
An exception presents the R22. Robinson opted for coning hinges instead preconing the
blades. It means that the blades are not rigidly connected to the rotor hub, like e.g. on a Jet
Ranger, but rather movable through a blade spindle and a bolt to the hub. It is still
considered semi-rigid, since the basic principles of a semi-rigid system didn’t change.
The blades can move vertically up and down by flapping as one unit and can feather about
the feather bearings.
Don’t make the mistake to think that both blades are forcing each other to flap up or down
when one blade starts to flap. The flapping is entirely caused by aerodynamic forces and
not mechanical forces.
Rigid system:
The blades are rigidly connected to the rotor hub and can only feather about the feather
bearings. All flight forces are absorbed by the composite materials of the blades.
_2. How do the flight controls on an R22 work? Including the cyclic and collective trim.
The cyclic controls the direction of travel: Forward, sideways, backwards.
By changing the tilt of the swash plate and therefore the pitch of the blades
individually on every blade in one rotation, it causes the blades to flap synchronized
into opposite directions tilting the disc. This provides the desired tilting of
the rotor force into for example forward direction to fly forward.
The collective controls the climbing and descending of the helicopter:
By changing the pitch of all blades simultaneously, it provides an overall increase or
decrease in total rotor force and therefore a climb or descent.
The collective simultaneously adjusts the throttle to correlate the increased or decreased
pitch angle of the blades with the appropriate amount of power required. This linkage
system is called “correlator”
The “anti torque” pedals control the tail rotor thrust by changing the pitch angle on the tail
rotor blades simultaneously when pressing a pedal. More torque from the engine is
compensated with more left pedal in a US built helicopter.
The cyclic trim is a bungee cord and spring assembly hidden under the flight control
console cover applying force to the cyclic control to compensate for flight control forces
during the inflight portion of the flight.
It can be activated by pulling the cyclic trim knob located in front of the cyclic control on
the console. The sideward pressure to the right provided by the spring can be adjusted by
turning a knob on the left side of the console.
The collective trim is hidden under the covers of the collective control attachment points
and cannot be adjusted during flight. It helps to prevent rising or sinking of the cyclic and
to keep the cyclic stationary when the pilot temporarily removes his or her hand from it.
_ 3. What type of engine does the R22 Beta 2 have? All details, how much power and how do we monitor
the power POH Section 1 + 2 + 7
_ 4. What is the difference between the governor and the correlator?
The correlator adjusts the main power settings by mechanically linking the collective to the
throttle valve.
The governor fine tunes the RPM by adjusting the throttle with a sensitive electric motor
controlled with an electronic black box that senses the RPM of the engine through the right
magneto.
_ 5. What type of fuel system and oil system is used in the R22?
Wet sump oil system, gravity-fed fuel system. Jepp. priv. pilot book page 2-32
Rotorcraft Flying Handbook page 5-6
_ 6. What type of fuel can we use in the Beta 2?
AvGas (Aviation Gasoline)
91/96 blue (might have been discontinued 30 years ago),
100LL blue,
100/130 green
Jepp. priv. pilot book page 2-30
_ 7. What is detonation? What can cause it? What is a sign of it?
Instant combustion of Air/Fuel mixture instead of controlled burning.
Caused by low fuel grade, wrong ignition timing, running engine too hot.
Signs of detonation can be:
Overheating, low power output, rough running engine, pinging or knocking noise of the
engine
_ 8. What is preignition? What can cause it? What is a sign of it?
The Air/Fuel mixture ignites before the sparkplug can ignite it. Caused by a residual hot
spot in the cylinder such as a small carbon deposit on a spark plug, a cracked ceramic
spark plug insulator, or almost any damage around the combustion chamber. Can be a
result of the engine running too hot (too lean) and/or low fuel grade. Often occurs with
detonation.
Signs can be: Low power, rough running, overheating engine.
_ 9. Explain the R22 main rotor and the drive system and its components. Explain all the way from the
engine to the rotors.
Low inertia, semi-rigid, underslung, etc…
The engine drives the main rotor drive shaft and the tail rotor drive shaft via two double V
belts and the lower and upper sheaves which, in turn drive both rotors respectively.
_ 10. What are the RPM ranges of both the engine and rotor on your tachometer?
60-70, 90-101, 101-104, 104-110 %
_ 11. What is the difference between the clutch and the sprag clutch? What are they for?
The clutch on the R22 is a belt drive clutch consisting of both sheaves and both belts and
the clutch actuator assembly. It disconnects the engine from the drive system during start
up to protect the starter and the drive system components.
The sprag clutch is also called the overrunning clutch or the freewheeling unit, because it
can be run in one direction without turning the drive shaft (overrunning). It works just like a
10 speed bicycle rear wheel. When the rotation from the engine is lower than the rotor RPM
the rotor keeps on spinning by freely spinning the clutch shaft within the upper sheave. So
the rotors are disconnected at this point from the engine and are not going to be slowed
down by a dieing engine for example. It allows the helicopter to autorotate.
_ 12. Why does the rotor and drive system have a wider RPM range power off than power on?
The engine limits would be exceeded if the rotor would be driven into the yellow
power on. Moreover power off, the direction of the power input is reversed and only
the “light” drive system is driven via the rotor, transmission, and drive shafts with
less shear force and pressure on the gears and torsional loads on the drive shafts. So it is
possible to sustain higher RPM without damage.
_ 13. What type of landing gear is installed on the R22? What other types of landing gears are there?
Skid type landing gear. Wheels, floats, skis.
_ 14. What kind of electrical system does the R22 have?
Battery – 12v / 25 amp/hr
Alternator – 14v / 60 amp
25 amp/hr means that you can pull 25 amperes for an hour from the battery. So the
endurance of the battery depends on how much load you put on the battery.
Important to know in the case of an electrical failure.
_ 15. Where are the fuses located? Why does the clutch have a circuit breaker and an additional fuse?
One on the instrument warning test panel for the clutch (plus one spare right next to it),
one on the firewall next to the “shunt ammeter” behind the passenger seat for the clock.
The clutch circuit breaker disengages the entire circuit including the clutch light. If there
were to be an overload in that circuit and the breaker would pop, the pilot would not be
able to notice that anything is wrong and would keep on flying without the actuator being
able to adjust the tension of the belts.
The fuse instead would blow in case of an electrical overload and would only disengage
the clutch actuator motor but the clutch light would stay on alarming the pilot, who would
then be able to follow the normal clutch light emergency procedure.
_ 16. What is the pitot-static system and how does it work? Where is it located?
VSI, ALT, ASI need to be provided with static (ambient) air pressure.
The ASI needs the static pressure and the dynamic pressure from the pitot tube as well.
Static is located under transmission cowling door top of transmission compartment.
Pitot is mounted on front of mast fairing.
ALT
Aneroid wavers which are air sealed inside the ALT are expanding when the ambient air
pressure, supplied by the static port into its housing, decreases with altitude. This
movement is transmitted with fine linkages to the needles on the altimeter face scale and
indicate the altitude. The Kollsmann Window shows the reference level to which the ALT is
comparing the altitude to.
VSI
An aneroid waver is supplied with static air pressure tube which has also a calibrated
whole that is venting into the housing of the instrument. When the air pressure drops
(climb) the needle shows the pressure difference between the static tube and the housing
which is slowly equalizing. As long there is a pressure change present, this pressure
difference will show a climb or a descent. When no pressure change through the static port
is present, the VSI returns to zero vertical speed.
ASI
The pitot tube provides a column of air built by the relative wind ramming into the tube and
transferring through a tube to a membrane inside the ASI. Due to the pressure and density
loss while ascending through the atmosphere, the housing of the ASI needs to be vented
to the ambient pressure to relieve the pressure off the membrane to insure the proper
measurement of the actual air pressure produced from moving through the air.
_ 17. Which instruments might be vacuum driven or alternately with electricity in some aircraft?
Gyroscopic instruments for IFR flight, e.g. heading indicator, attitude indicator, and turn
coordinator.
_ 18. Why do we need to heat the carburetor under certain conditions? How does carb heat
work? Describe the full procedure for carb heat application.
POH section 4 p. 4-11
Due to the decrease in pressure and the evaporation of fuel in the venturi throat in
the carburetor, the temperature easily drops below freezing levels and moisture
present in the aspirated air will freeze, and carb ice will build up. A sliding plate
inside the air filter box, controlled with the carb heat push-pull knob, switches the
air inlet from the normal induction hose (orange hose located on right side of side
panels with opening to outside) to a short hose ending in a scoop-shaped sheet
metal partially surrounding the exhaust manifold. The aspirated air is temperature
is immediately raised by at least 60 degrees Fahrenheit.
_ 19. What is your avionics system?
Avionics includes communication and navigation systems, autopilots, and
electronic flight management systems (FMS)
subject 7: __
passing if 36 correct
Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics of normal flight maneuver
_ 1. How do we produce lift with a helicopter?
By rotating airfoils (rotorblades) at an appropriate pitch angle, relative wind (wind
opposite to the direction of blade motion) is created. That airflow is producing an
aerodynamic reaction leading to a pressure difference above and below the
rotorblades. Bernoulli’s Principle acts above the blades and Newton’s 3 rd law acts
below the blades. The pressure difference wants to equalize and produces an
upward force on the blades called lift.
_ 2. Where and how do we create drag on a helicopter?
Name all 3 categories: Parasite, profile, and induced.
Parasite drag: The resisting forces to the relative wind of the helicopter fuselage being
pulled through the air by the rotor. It consists of: Form Drag and Skin Friction Drag (this
fact is only to find in the military manual “Rotary Wing Flight”)
Profile drag: The resisting forces of the rotors to the relative wind consisting of: Form Drag
and Skin Friction Drag as well. The drag of the rotors has to be called differently than
parasite drag, since their retreating blades cancel any increase of drag on the advancing
blade out and therefore don’t contribute to an increase in total drag. At higher speed
though, compressibility issues of the air (onset of supersonic flow) on the advancing blade
leads to an increase of profile drag.
Induced drag: Lift produced by an airfoil is a result of an airflow interacting with it. The lift
formula (Lift=CL x ½ p x V2 x S) shows that you either have to have a good a.o.a., good
airspeed over the blade, a certain amount of air density and a big enough blade to produce
it. Since the rotor RPM is set to a specific value in powered flight, we have to utilize the
capability to change the a.o.a. (by changing blade pitch) in order to increase lift and thrust
or decrease it. Since in a hover, the induced airflow decreases our a.o.a. we need to
increase our blade pitch angle even more. The more we need to deflect air downwards
(increase in downwash angle at trailing edge) in order to produce lift, the more the angle of
the oncoming air (relative wind) is going to be coming from higher up (upwash angle)
decreasing the a.o.a. even more. Since lift is always perpendicular to the relative wind the
redirecting of the relative wind from higher causes the lift to lean back towards the trailing
edge.
The amount of how much the lift is leaning backwards instead upward, is the amount by
which it tries to resist the rotation of the blades.
Since the required blade angle is highest at zero airspeed to compensate for an increased
induced flow, induced drag is the greatest in a no wind hover.
Since wing tip vortices are adding to the downwash angle at the trailing edge, they are
significantly responsible for in increase of induced drag as well.
_ 3. Which of those is responsible for the huge power demand in a hover?
Induced drag. See explanation above
_ 4. Which decreases with airspeed? Which increases with airspeed?
Parasite increases.
Induced decreases.
Profile remains constant until reaching high speed, where it increases slightly.
The sum of all three drags (total drag) is at its minimum at 53 KIAS (Vy, L/D max, max.
endurance speed)
_ 5. What is the direction of airflow through the rotor disc in powered flight?
Downward through the rotor disc.
_ 6. What is gyroscopic precession?
If an outside force is applied to a spinning object, the result of that input will occur 90˚ later
in the direction of rotation.
_ 7. How does it apply to helicopter flight and how is it corrected for?
A rotor of a helicopter inherently is displaying gyroscopic features. In order to control it,
gyroscopic precession has to be taken into account. Every input by the pitch links has to
be done about 90˚ earlier than we expect the desired results.
This amount of degrees of early input is called advance angle and is the technique
designers use to compensate for gyroscopic precession.
_ 8. What is coriolis effect on a rotor system?
The tendency of the blades to increase its speed while flapping up and slowing down while
flapping down. Every spinning object has the tendency to speed its rotational speed when
its center of gravity comes closer to its center of rotations.
_ 9. How is coriolis effect effecting the rotor and how is it corrected for in all three main rotor systems?
Coriolis effect would cause rotor blades constructed out of conventional materials to
fatigue prematurely due to the bending forces incurred at the blade roots.
In a fully articulated rotor system: corrected by using – “lead / lag hinges”
the for and aft movement of the individual blades in the plane of rotation is allowed by so
called lead/lag hinges or drag hinges. The entire process is called blade hunting, since the
blades are hunting each other in the plane of rotation. Sometimes catching up with each
other and then falling behind again.
Lead/lag hinges relieve the stress off the blade roots.
In a semi-rigid rotor system: corrected by underslinging the blades.
By mounting the blades lower than the actual attachment point of the rotor hub to the rotor
drive shaft, the entire hub actually swings in and out while facilitating the flapping by
teetering. This pushes the up flapping blade outwards and pulls the down flapping blade
inwards in respect to the axis of rotation. This keeps the CG of both blades in a constant
distance to the axis of rotation and therefore eliminates coriolis effect.
Rigid system: corrected by using advanced materials that can absorb the stress.
All mechanical and aero dynamical flight forces are absorbed by the advanced, composite
materials used in the rotor hub and the blades.
_ 10. What is translating tendency?
The tendency of the helicopter to move in the direction of tail rotor thrust.
_ 11. How do we correct for it in the R22?
With left cyclic pilot input
The horizontal component of lift to the left of the main rotor compensates the tail rotor
thrust to the right. Since the CG is positioned vertically between both forces building a
force couple, it produces a moment (rotational force) on the fuselage to the left. This is
why most US built helicopters hover with a left skid low attitude. Eurocopters = right skid
low. Next time you watch a helicopter take off, pay attention to it.
_ 12. What is dissymmetry of lift?
The difference in lift between the advancing and retreating sides of the rotor disc at
airspeed. It would cause the helicopter to roll to the left if not corrected for. In
relation to any airflow passing over the disc, the advancing blade is travelling
against this airflow resulting in a higher local airspeed than that over the retreating
blade which is travelling with the airflow. Following the lift formula, the difference
in local airspeed produces the difference in lift values known as dissymmetry of lift.
_ 13. How is it eliminated?
We allow the blades to flap, instead to transfer their movement into the fuselage, thus
increasing and decreasing the A.O.A. on both sides respectively. The increase in lift makes
the advancing blade flap up. The decrease in lift makes the retreating blade flap down. If
the blade flaps up on the advancing side the relative wind is approaching it from higher up,
decreasing the a.o.a. If the blade flaps down on the retreating side, the relative wind is
approaching it from lower down, increasing the a.o.a. Due to flapping, the lift values over
the disc equalize and dissymmetry of lift is eliminated.
_ 14. What is translational lift? (TL)
An increase in rotor efficiency due to an airflow of about 1-16 kts across the rotor,
clearing wing tip vortices of the disc, thus decreasing induced drag. It is felt as a shutter
since the disc is flying through a ring of high frequency turbulent air (vortices). Once the
vortices are shed, the shutter goes away. It is the perfect gauge to judge if the helicopter is
operating above or below translational lift.
_ 15. What is effective translational lift? (ETL)
An increase in rotor efficiency due to an airflow of about 16-24 kts across the rotor
disc decreasing induced airflow, thus increasing A.O.A. without changing the
power setting. ETL does not increase beyond approximately 50 KIAS. Once the shutter
starts we know we are falling out of ETL since TL is beginning.
_ 16. What is transverse flow effect (inflow roll)?
It occurs at about 16-20 KIAS It is the decrease in lift at the aft portion of the disc due to a
more perpendicular airflow through the aft portion of the rotor disc. The air flowing
through the rotor in the rear has had more time to become redirected vertically before
reaching the rotor. It is felt due to gyroscopic precession, approx. 90 degrees later as a
right roll tendency of the helicopter on take off. It coincides with the occurrence of ETL.
Simply left cyclic input corrects for transverse flow effect.
_ 17. What is blow back (also called flap back) of the rotor disc?
Flap back is a result of flapping to eliminate dissymmetry of lift. Flapping up
on the advancing side, leads to a high position of the blade 90 degrees later (gyroscopic
precession) over the nose. The retreating side behaves likewise leading to low flight path
over the tail. This results in the whole disc flapping back in the longitudinal axis. Forward
cyclic input redirects the disc to a forward flying attitude again. Eventually the flap back
tendency of the rotor disc limits the forward airspeed of the helicopter besides retreating
blade stall. RBS see below.
_ 18. What is ground effect?
An increase in rotor efficiency occurs when a helicopter is flown less than one rotor
diameter to a hard flat surface. This is decreasing the downwash velocity since it cannot
dissipate freely and is literally slowed down. An decrease of downwash means a decrease
of induced airflow. Decreased induced airflow means less induced drag (from wing tip
vortices) and an increase of the a.o.a at the same time.
Note: Every helicopter flight manual states the required hover skid height for the IGE / OGE
hover charts to be accurate. It is 2 feet skid height for the R22.
Usable surfaces:
Hard flat surfaces
Freshly zambonied ice ;-)
Unusable surfaces:
Tall grass
Slopes
Water
Soft snow
_ 19. How does a helicopter turn in flight?
By applying lateral cyclic the disc tilts to the side and the rotor force provides a horizontal
component of lift (centripetal force) to accelerate the helicopter laterally. In combination
with the forward movement, the helicopter is now describing a curved flight path.
Since force is “borrowed” in the horizontal direction from the total rotor force, the vertical
force (lift) had to decrease thus leading to a descent if not more power is added. The
steeper the bank is the more lift is lost and the more power has to be pulled in to maintain
a level turn.
_ 20. What is a load factor?
During flight, the helicopter is subjected to the gravitational force from the earth. In
straight and level flight the load or weight of the helicopter is supported by the equivalent
lift of the rotor. The load factor is the ratio of the weight of the aircraft supported by the lift
to the load of the aircraft.
In straight and level unaccelerated flight and you divide the weight of the helicopter into
the weight supported by the lift you will get a factor of one. 1 G.
_ 21. Why is the load factor increasing during turns?
Since turning a helicopter is a result of accelerating it sideways, the helicopter experiences
a load increase due to centrifugal force, which is felt as a weight increase. If you now
divide the weight into the new increased load that is supported by the rotor, you’ll get a
load factor greater than 1. At 60 bank angle, your load factor is 2. Since the amount of
lateral acceleration is only depending on how far the disc is tilted to the side producing
centripetal force, the load factor is a result of bank angle only. Speed is not increasing the
load, since an increase in speed would only make the aircraft describe a wider radius
through the turn. At the same time the rate of turn would decreased.
Aerodynamics of Autorotations:
_ 22. What is the definition of an autorotation?
Descending flight where the rotor is entirely driven by the force of the relative
wind instead of the engine.
_ 23. What is the direction of airflow in unpowered flight?
Upward through the rotor disc.
Induced airflow (a downward airflow produced as a result from deflecting air downwards
with the blades) is now replaced with the “rate of descent airflow” which comes from
below the plane of rotation. The rate of descent airflow in combination with the rotational
airflow from the blades spinning build the resulting relative wind.
_24. What are the three regions of a rotor disc in an autorotation? Which one is responsible for
driving the rotor?
The root section of the disc is the “stalled region”
The center section is the “driving region” or autorotative region”
The blade tip section is the “driven region” or “propeller region”
The driving region is the only region in which the aerodynamic resultant of drag
and lift is leaning forward in reference to the axis of rotation, providing the “driving
force” to keep the rotor spinning. The stalled region is only producing drag. The
“driven region”, although producing lift, is also producing drag, slowing the rotor
down. All three regions are in equilibrium keeping the rotor at a steady RPM.
_ 25. Explain the Height / Velocity Diagram.
It depicts a combination of altitudes and airspeeds from which an autorotation can
or cannot (shaded areas) be successfully completed by an average-skilled pilot. It
also depicts a recommended profile for take-off, since on take-off it takes much
longer to reverse the airflow through the rotor system than on an approach due to
high blade angles for the climb. It is not a limitation of the helicopter, it is a
recommendation for safe operation practices.
Aerodynamics of Hazardous Flight Conditions
_ 26. What is Settling with Power (Vortex Ring State)?
The helicopter is settling into its own downwash in powered flight creating vortex
rings on the rotor. If the induced airflow on a rotor system is directly opposed by a
strong rate of descent flow, and it does not have a way to dissipate into any direction,
it causes the relative wind of the root section of the rotor to move closer to the
plane of rotation, or even below the plane of rotation. This causes the a.o.a. to be
exceeded and the root sections stalls. The airflow becomes turbulent and erratic.
The middle part of the blade still produces downwash and circulates the upward
moving air from the root section downward just to be moved upward through the
disc again and a so-called vortex ring develops at the root section. On the blade tip
section, the increased rate of descent flow inline with the blade tip vortices create
another vortex ring and although this section is not stalled, due to the now very high
induced airflow component, the a.o.a. is insufficient to produce enough lift to
sustain the weight of the helicopter. The more power (blade angle) applied, the
more intense the vortex ring becomes. If not recognized early by the pilot it ultimately
brings the helicopter down for a crash landing.
_ 27. What are the requirements for the development of settling with power?
1. More than 300 fpm descent rate
2. Air peed less than ETL (~30 KIAS)
3. More than 20% power in use
_ 28. What are the flight maneuvers likely to lead to settling with power?
Steep approaches
downwind landings
descending quick stops
OGE hovers if not executed properly
are all maneuvers in which the downwash might end up directly under the helicopter and
when directly opposed by a strong rate of descent flow Vortex Ring State can develop.
_ 29. What are the symptoms of settling with power?
A shutter and unusual vibration, uncommanded pitch and yaw, uncontrollable
Descent rate.
_ 30. How do you recover from settling with power?
Lower collective (if possible), moderate forward cyclic to fly out of downwash. Don’t apply
to much cyclic since you have a hard time building up lift when the disc is tilted too much.
_ 31. What is Ground Resonance? How can you get into ground resonance?
A hard landing with the skids not level could cause the blades in a fully articulated
rotor system to shift out of phase in the plane of rotation about the lead-lag hinges,
leading to a severe out of balance rotor system. If the helicopter is in contact with the
ground, the entire rotor starts to spin its unbalanced mass about the rotor mast.
The rotor mast is now a fixed point, leading to a high force oscillating unbalanced rotating
of the rotor that can very quickly destroy the entire helicopter.
A faulty lead-lag damper could also cause ground resonance on spin up of the rotor as
well as worn out shocks (oleos), or too stiff of shocks that are part of the skid
undercarriage of fully articulated helicopters.
What do you do if you experience ground resonance?
If you still have sufficient RPM (RPM in the green), lift off immediately. If the rotor mast, as
a fixed point, is not attached to the ground anymore, it can give in towards the oscillating
movement and the blades have a chance to get back in phase. If you do not have sufficient
RPM left, immediately try to shut off the engine and use rotorbrake and/or apply left pedal
(US helos) to slow down the rotor.
_ 32. What is a dynamic rollover?
An inadvertent rollover caused by accidental tilting of the disc while the skid has a
point of contact. The rotor thrust can develop a moment about a point of contact of
the skids on the ground, and if the critical angle of the roll is exceeded, the
horizontal component of rotor thrust will be able to pull the aircraft over on its side.
_ 33. What are the requirements for the development of dynamic rollover?
-
Rotor thrust must be equal or greater to the helicopters weight
there must be a point of contact to act as a pivoting point
and there must be a moment (from disc position other than level) to start the roll.
(rolling moment)
_ 34. What are the precautions you can take to avoid dynamic rollover?
Hover high enough
Avoid any inadvertent sideways or backwards movement
Eliminate all movements of the helicopter with the cyclic and the pedals thoroughly
before pick up.
Always perform a two step pick up
Step 1: Light on skids. Step 2: Carefully lift off the ground
_ 35. What flight conditions could lead to dynamic rollover?
It can happen anytime you are not paying enough attention to your pilot technique.
Tail rotor drift is always present and can lead to a rollover, even on simple hard level
pavement, since it creates a rolling moment before you have lifted the right skid (US
Heli) off the ground, especially on slope landings if you don’t or you cannot keep
the disc level and your skid is in contact with the slope. Both upslope and
downslope rollovers are possible.
If your skids are stuck to the ground. Always make sure that your skids are free.
“Wiggle the skids” with the pedals.
What do you do if you’re experiencing dynamic rollover?
Gently lower collective and apply opposite cyclic. You need to be gentle, since slamming
the collective down produces a high roll rate to the other direction and can lead to a
rollover to the other side.
_ 36. What is mast bumping?
If the clearance between the inner face plate of the hub (R22 – inner face plate of the blade
spindles) and the mast is exceeded, the hub contacts the mast almost 18 times a
second @ 104%, and can separate the rotor from the mast.
_ 37. When can mast bumping occur?
Anytime excessive flapping occurs. This could happen on:
Slope landings
Start up or shut down (blade sailing)
Low G maneuvers such as a push over; the disc is pushed forward abruptly into the
airflow and looses its lift and thrust instantaneously (opposite of a flair effect),
therefore unloading the rotor disc and creating an unsuspended condition felt as low
G (weightlessness). Roll control and pitch control in a teetering hinge rotor system is
only achieved by the thrust producing a moment about the CG to roll the fuselage.
If there is no thrust, there is no moment, and the fuselage is now only subjected to
the forces of tail rotor thrust, the relative wind acting on the side of the fuselage,
and gyroscopic forces causing it to severely roll to the right and closing in on
eliminating the clearance between the hub and the mast. If the pilot reacts
instinctively, correcting for the right roll with left cyclic, the clearance might be
exceeded and mast bumping occurs.
_ 38. What should you do if you are getting into a low G situation?
Gently apply aft cyclic to reload the rotor first and then correct for the roll with left cyclic. If
you didn’t move the cyclic, the fuselage will roll back automatically anyway without left
cyclic input.
_ 39. What causes low rotor RPM?
Overpitching: When the required power exceeds the available power (high DA, high
gross weight) and the pilot does not recognize it and overpitches the rotor.
Overpitching means that the blade angle is too high (high drag) for the available power
and the RPM decays.
Accidentally rolling throttle “off” instead of “on”.
Unanticipated loss of engine power (partial or full engine failure)
_ 40. What could low rotor RPM lead to?
Rotor stall (retreating blade stalls first, if in forward flight)
At 80% plus 1% of rotor RPM catastrophic rotor stall can occur.
Section 4 of R22 POH-“practice autorotations”
_ 41. Explain rotor stall. When can it happen?
Low rotor RPM is, in most cases, caused by overpitching (power required exceeds
power available). The subsequent loss of lift results in a rate of descent airflow.
The loss of rotational airspeed and the rate of descent flow is redirecting the
relative wind from closer or even from below the plane of rotation causing too large
an a.o.a. If the critical a.o.a. (12-18˚) is exceeded, the airflow can no longer follow the
upper camber of the airfoil and separates from it, stalling the blade. Lift decreases
and drag increases sharply.
_ 42. How do you correct for low rotor RPM?
Lower collective and roll on throttle simultaneously to get rid of excess drag. The throttle
must be rolled on at the same time to keep the engine power where it was, or the correlator
rigging of the collective will roll it off while lowering collective. If you have sufficient
forward airspeed, aft cyclic will increase RPM as well by loading the rotor and improving
the lift/drag ratio.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 8: __
Passing if 13 correct
Performance and Limitations
_ 1. What kind of limitations do we have on the R22?
Engine power and RPM (map limits) because of component design, rotor RPM and
handling (low G), weight, CG, speed, and kind of operations limitations.
_ 2. How do you make sure not to exceed the limitations during all phases of the planned flight?
Proper preflight planning. 91.103
_ 3. What is Vy for the R22 Beta II? What is Vx?
Vy = best rate of climb speed = 53 KIAS. The speed that produces the least amount
of total drag (also L/D max = lift drag ratio is at its best), and therefore leaving
you with the most amount of surplus power, hence best climbing ability. You can pitch the
blades more since you have more power to compensate for the increased drag.
Vx = best angle of climb speed = 0 KIAS in any helicopter.
_ 4. What is retreating blade stall? What can cause it? How do you feel it? How do we get out of it?
As airspeed increases, local airspeed over the retreating blade decreases causing a
decrease in lift. Moreover, the faster we travel the larger an area of reverse flow
develops on the retreating blade root, also decreasing lift. That decrease in lift
leads to down flapping of the retreating blade and therefore increasing the a.o.a.
since the relative wind is redirected from further below. (Elimination of dissymmetry
of lift). The retreating blade stalls when the critical a.o.a. is exceeded as a result of
down flapping.
Symptoms of RBS
Vertical vibrations in controls, left roll, nose pitch up due to gyroscopic precession
since the retreating side is stalling and not creating as much lift anymore.
What can cause it?
Turbulence, steep turns, high gross weight, high density altitude, in combination with
high airspeed increases the susceptibility for RBS (anything that causes high blade
angle in combination with high airspeeds).
Correction
Lower collective first to get rid of the blade angle, then aft cyclic to slow down. The nose
pitch up might already take care of the high speed. So just keep it in a reasonable attitude
to slow the aircraft down.
If aft cyclic is applied first, the stall aggravates, since the a.o.a. overall on all blades
increases with aft cyclic (after an initial decrease of a.o.a. at the retreating blade caused by
cyclic feathering).
_ 5. What is LTE? When should you expect it? Name all three wind regions.
Loss of tail rotor effectiveness.
An uncommanded yaw to the right (US helos), due to the inability to produce tail rotor
thrust despite large tail rotor pitch angles.
Causes
Left quartering headwind – leads to main rotor blade tip vortices interference with the
tail rotor.
Tailwind – The weathervane effect makes it hard to keep control of the tail. A tailwind
acts on the tail boom with much leverage to turn the tail downwind. Abrupt power
changes are required to keep the “dancing” tail pointed into the wind. It might
momentarily exceed the thrust capabilities of the tail rotor and lead to an
uncommanded yaw.
Left cross wind – can lead to a vortex ring state at the tail rotor. Slow right turns into
the wind are especially prone to LTE because of high torque and the resulting left
quartering headwind followed by a full left cross wind.
_ 6. What do you do if you experience LTE?
In normal flight - Full left pedal and forward cyclic to gain airspeed and directional stability
from the vertical fin.
If in hover - full left pedal and if it does not stop, get rid of the torque by rolling throttle into
the overtravel spring. Keep a/c level and raise collective to cushion landing (loss of
tail rotor thrust emergency procedure).
_ 7. What is Vne? Show me how to use the chart.
Vne = never exceed speed. This is the speed limit that has been established by the
manufacturer. It is 102 KIAS up to 3,000 ft of DA. Less dense air than that and you need to
refer to the Vne limit chart in your cockpit or the POH.
In helicopters it is governed primarily by the possibility of getting into retreating
blade stall at high airspeeds, high altitudes, and high temperatures.
_ 8. Explain the derating of the 0-360 J2A engine. Why is it derated?
Derating an engine converts a “sea level” engine to an “altitude engine” see FAR part 1.1
The idea is the following:
Derating prolongs the engine and its components life and reliability since stress is
greatly reduced.
Every reciprocating engine depends on the proper air/fuel mixture to produce optimal
power. The amount of oxygen molecules is gradually decreasing with an increase in
altitude (true or density altitude). If there isn’t enough oxygen molecules for the fuel to
burn, the power will decrease. The manifold pressure limit chart shows that you can apply
full throttle at 8,000 ft PA @ 25˚C. That equals 10,900 ft DA.
That means that the power can be held constant from sea level up to that 10.9000 DA. That
means we are losing 11.38 hp every 1,000 feet.
Since we don’t use all our available power at sea level, we still have some surplus power in
hand to make up for that power loss caused by an increase in altitude.
This has two main advantages.
1. The engine is more reliable, since you are not running it to its maximum capacity.
Engine failures are virtually unheard off in R22 unless the engines are not maintained
properly. (Valve guide clearance checks to prevent stuck valves.. etc.) The O 360 J2A
used in the Beta II runs at 70% of it’s capable power settings at MCP (max. cont.
power)
2. The components of the helicopter can be built lighter and smaller, since they don’t
have to endure extreme power throughput. This extends the life time of all components
of the helicopter including the engine and makes it more cost effective.
The engine can produce 180 hp. It is derated to 145hp. By limiting it to 2,700 rpm
Robinson derates it even more by imposing a pilot induced limitation (MAP
limits), which limits the engine to 124 hp for continuous use, and 131 hp for 5 minutes takeoff use.
The R22 Beta II components are designed to withstand 124 hp continuously to reach
2,200 hours of TBO.
_ 9. How is the MAP limit chart to be used to stay within the allowed limits?
Use limitations section of POH - placards.
_ 10. What effects the performance of the helicopter? How does it effect the helicopter?
Name the 4 H’s
H igh: High altitude (low air pressure)
H ot: High temperature
H umid: High humidity
H eavy: High gross weight
All of the above factors require high blade angles hence increased drag which
demands high power. Power is decreased by the first 3 factors (high, hot,
humid).
_ 11. Show me how to use the performance charts on the following two examples
Example 1:
You want to land at 6,000 ft MSL, local pressure there is 29.55” Hg, temperature is
22˚C, gross weight is 1,350 lbs. Can you attempt to land?
Example 2:
You want to fly to a mountain top that is 7,700 ft high. 17 n.m. away. Weather conditions
are excellent and no factor on a go/no go decision.
You want to carry 300 lbs. of organic fertilizer to nurture the blossoming flowers up on top
of the mountain. You are using an R22 Beta II.
Demonstrate your procedure to get to a reliable and decision on how to load the helicopter
and safely fly it on top of that mountain. You have no fuel depot up there and now weather
observation.
Can you land (provided there is enough room) and nurture the flowers? Or do you have to
dump it from the helicopter while orbiting the flowers?
Good luck with that as a single pilot ;-)
_ 12. What can be the immediate effects of exceeding the limitations? What are the long term
effects?
The ability to control the helicopter is limited when weight limitations are exceeded.
Imposed flight loads are exceeding the limits for normal category aircraft (3.5 Gs per part
27.337) and flight normal flight maneuvers might be dangerous since available power
cannot produce enough lift to oppose those unusual flight loads.
Components can be damaged immediately. In the long run, the component
life is decreased and sometimes very abruptly by completely failing without any
forewarning. Catastrophic component failure due to metal fatigue.
Exceeding performance limitations like flying above OGE / IGE hover ceilings can easily
lead to accidents when not closely monitored.
Any of the published limitations can cause accidents if not adhered by closely.
_ 13. What is the height / velocity diagram? Can we fly in it?
A depiction of altitude and speed combinations from which a successful
autorotation could be accomplished by an average-skilled pilot.
The shaded areas depict the areas that are dangerous.
It is not a limitation of the helicopter, it is a recommendation.
On take off it is especially important to stay out of the shaded areas since the blade
angles are relatively high, which would cause the RPM to decay much quicker than when
power setting are low.
Moreover the needed reversal of the direction of the airflow through the disc takes longer
and more altitude on a take-off than on an approach since you were climbing.
_ 14. Explain the Center of Gravity Limitations of the R22.
The range of the possible location of the CG around the rotor mast is pretty small on an
R22. If you check the center of gravity limits in the limitations section of the POH, you see
that the CG can only be 4.5” in front of the rotor mast and 2” behind the mast for the
longitudinal CG limit.
Laterally the location is limited to 2.5” to the right and 2.25” to the left of the center line
(buddline) and only in the forward portion of the envelope.
Where do we get the basic information to start our weight and balance calculation?
Weight and balance equipment list in POH of a specific helicopter.
_ 15. What are the dangers of exceeding them?
To be able to maintain control of the helicopter, the rotor disc must be
perpendicular in reference to the earth’s gravitational force.
If the CG were to be located outside of that prescribed envelope, the fuselage’s attitude in
relation to the disc would require the cyclic to be out of the center position so much, that
the available cyclic travel might be compromised and controllability is impaired.
Therefore you must calculate the location of the CG for all possible flight conditions: Zero
fuel and maximum allowable fuel for your flight.
Exceeding max gross weight may damage components, may make it impossible to
slow the rate of descent and makes the aircraft slow to respond due to the
imbalance of available control forces over the now too high inertia of the helicopter.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 9: __
Passing if 15 correct
Section 3: Flight Operations
Regulations: General
_ 1. In what section of the FARs are the general flight and operating rules?
91
_ 2. What are the right-of-way rules for aircraft in the air?
91.113
_ 3.What is the minimum safe altitude for helicopters?
91.119 Give general for all aircraft AND helicopters.
_ 4. Do we need an ELT in a helicopter?
91.207 – NO! it only mentions airplanes. But if it is installed, it has to be operative and
inspected per 91.213 and 91.207
_ 5. Where can you find the information for question #4?
91.207 – test if student finds stuff in the FAR/AIM.
_ 6. Show me the CAMA(L)S FOOT & FLAP in the FAR/AIM.
91.205 Add a couple of more sections to find, and have them read it and interpret it.
_ 7. What are the limitations for alcohol and drugs in your blood as a pilot?
91.17 – Alcohol: max. 0.04% - 8 hr. bottle to throttle – not under the influence of alcohol.
_ 8. As pilot in command, when are you allowed to deviate from any rule from part 91?
91.3 – in an emergency.
You need to submit a report within 48 hours if requested by the FAA.
_ 9. What are NOTAMs?
5-1-3 – Notice to airmen. Info of temporary or short notice that could not be
included in publications.
_ 10. What kinds of NOTAMs are there?
5-1-3 – L = Local, D = Distant, FDC = Flight Data Center
L&D are non-regulatory (advisories)
FDC is regulatory. For example for TFRs (Temporary Flight Restrictions), or changes in
IAPs (instrument approach procedures)
_ 11. Where can you get them?
FSS, Web (e.g. DUAT.com or DUATS.com), ATIS (NOTAM: L and D)
_ 12. How close are you allowed to operate your helicopter to another aircraft?
91.111 Avoid collision hazard
_ 13. Where can you legally land a helicopter?
4-3-17 C and P/C p. 913 AIM 05
Anywhere you have permission and you are not creating a (perceived) hazard to
people or property.
Caution: Almost all bigger cities have ordinances against helicopter off airport landings in
place. Those would supercede any permission by a private home owner, who would allow
you to land on his property.
_ 14. Are you allowed to fly in formation?
91.111 Yes, if all PICs are agreeing. But not if you have passengers for hire on board.
_ 15. If you are flying VFR higher than 3,000 ft AGL, what specific altitudes are you supposed to fly?
91.159
Hemispherical cruising altitude rule: 0-179 mag. Odd + 500ft / 180-359 mag. Even + 500ft.
_ 16. What is your VFR minimum fuel requirement?
91.151 (a)and (b)20 min. for helos day and night.
_ 17. Who must you notify in the event of an accident or incident? What requires immediate
notification?
NTSB Title 49 CFR Part 830.5
Accidents and the following incidents:
Flight control system failure or malfunction
Inability of crewmember to perform duties due to injury or illness
Failure of structural component. of turbine excluding compressor and turbine blades
In-flight fire
Aircraft collide in flight
Damage to property, other than the aircraft, in excess of more than $25,000
Aircraft overdue and believed to be involved in an accident.
_18. What are the aircraft speed limitations in the National Airspace System (NAS)
91.117
- above 10,000 MSL: no speed limit
- below 10,000 MSL: 250 kts
- within 4 n.m. and 2,500 ft. AGL of a primary airport of class C or D: 200 kts
- within class B: 250 kts
- airspace below the floors of class B designated for an airport: 200 kts
- within a class B VFR corridor: 200 kts
or whatever your minimum safe speed is for your specific aircraft.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 10: __
Passing if 13 correct
Flight Operations General
Preflight
_ 1. How do you make sure you have enough fuel on board?
Make visual inspection of fuel levels in the actual tanks if possible.
_ 2. For a pilot in command, what is required per the FARs before EVERY flight?
91.103 become familiar with all available information pertaining to your flight.
Altimeter settings
_ 3. Explain altimeter errors.
7-2-1
There are two main sources of altimeter errors.
1. Using the wrong reference in your altimeter (Kollsman window setting)
If not adjusted to local reported altimeter settings at least every 100 n.m., the altimeter
does not indicate your true altitude (MSL)
True altitude is your altitude in reference to the mean sea level. You need to put the
pressure into your altimeter that it is down at sea level (calibrate it) or your altimeter
cannot “count” from the correct baseline.
Airports are measuring the local pressure (station pressure) and than (a computer)
adjust this pressure to what it is at sea level at that moment. You can get it then from
them directly over the radio or by checking ATIS or ASOS or AWOS
Rule: “From high to low, look out below.
2.
Not taking into account that the altimeter senses pressure changes only and not
temperature changes.
Example:
The pressure of 28.92 would be found on a standard day at 1,000 MSL
Temperature on a std. day at 1,000 is 13˚C. If the temperature is warmer than 13˚C than
this pressure of 28.92 is actually located higher than 1,000 MSL. And vise versa.
The so called pressure levels (levels = the altitude at which the pressure is found) are
raised on warm days. So you are pretty much flying with the changes of the
temperature up and down in the atmosphere.
Only if the temperature is below standard at the altitude you are flying at, your actual
altitude over sea level will be lower than indicated.
Rule: “From hot to cool, look out for the pool”. Or something like this..
_ 4. The altimeter is set, how much may the altimeter indication differ from your field elevation?
7-2-3
+/- 75 feet
_ 5. Are you allowed to fly when the atmospheric pressure is above 31.00 in.Hg and if not why?
91.144 and 7-2-4
no, only in an emergency. Your altimeter doesn’t have the range to be calibrated
above 31.00”
_ 6. What about below 28 in. Hg?
7-2-5
Not recommended if you cannot set your altimeter below 28”. Your indicated
altitude is not going to be true altitude
_ 7. Within how many miles do you have to adjust your altimeter to the local setting?
91.121 and 7-2-2
100 NM
_ 8. What do you do if you don’t have any reported altimeter settings?
Set your altimeter to the field elevation
Collision avoidance
_ 9. Who is always responsible for collision avoidance during VFR flight operations?
91.111 / 91.113 (b) PIC, not ATC
_ 10. What is the primary part of collision avoidance procedures?
8-1-6 c Scan the sky in 10 degree increments and focus
_ 11. How can you judge if another aircraft is at the same altitude as you?
8-1-8 b Above the horizon, below the horizon
_ 12. How can you tell that you might be on a head on collision course with another aircraft?
8-1-8 e There is no apparent movement
_ 13. What could help to avoid collisions with birds?
4-3-23 c Landing lights recommended per AIM
Noise abatement
_ 14. How do you avoid excessive noise?
Avoid excessive blade slap and repeated low flight over the same areas
Avoid flying very low over cities in general.
_ 15. What are the noise abatement procedures for an airport and where can you find it?
Noise abatement procedures are established by prescribing specific routes and altitudes
on take-off and landing procedures for specific aircraft at and in the vicinity of an airport.
Call the airport, check AFD, check with FSS and FSDO
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 11: __
Passing if 20 correct
Emergency Procedures
_ 1. What does the term “Power Failure” mean and what could cause it?
POH sections 3
Loss of rotational energy at the rotors.
Caused by engine or drive system failure.
What is and / or how is it indicated, and what do you do if the following occurs and / or how do
you perform a:
_ 2. Power failure at a hover
_ 3. Power failure on take off
_ 4. Power failure at altitude
_ 5. Power failure over water (ditching)
_ 6. Ditching with the engine running
_ 7. Loss of tail rotor thrust in flight
_ 8. Loss of tail rotor thrust in a hover
_ 9. What do you do if your aircraft is on fire during flight?
Systems and Equipment Malfunction
What do you do if the following lights come on?
_ 10. Oil light
_ 11. Main temp
_ 12. Main chip
_ 13. Tail chip
_ 14. Low fuel light
_ 15. Clutch light
_ 16. Alternator light
_ 17. Brake light
_ 18. Starter light
_ 19. Governor light
_ 20. Low rotor RPM light / horn
What do you do if:
_ 21. Your tachometer malfunctions?
_ 22. Your governor malfunctions?
Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear and Procedures
_ 23. What should you have with you to raise the odds of survival in the event of a crash?
Besides having a jacket and good shoes,
1. have a Survival and First Aid Kit with you that is appropriate to the environment you fly
in (hot or cold climates)
2. Have a handheld radio and a personal 406 MHz ELT (PERS = personal emergency
response system) with you.
3. Always file a flight plan on cross country flights that lead you over unpopulated areas.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 12: __
Passing if 28 correct
Weather
_ 1. Why do we have weather on earth?
Because of uneven heating and cooling of the earth’s surface by the sun
_ 2. What creates wind?
The pressure gradient force between low and high pressure areas created by
uneven heating
_ 3. What is the ISA?
International standard atmosphere
29.92 in Hg at 15˚ C
1013.2 mb (milibar) at 59˚ F
_ 4. What is the standard temperature lapse rate?
The amount of temperature loss with altitude – 1.98˚ C (2.00) or 3.6˚ F per 1,000 ft
_5. What is the difference between stable and unstable atmosphere?
Unstable atmosphere does not resist vertical air movement compared to stable
atmosphere. When the lapse rate is higher than 2˚ C, the atmosphere is unstable
since air parcels at higher temperatures than the ambient temperature can rise higher and
faster before cooling down to the surrounding temperature.
_ 6. What is a temperature inversion?
A low-level temperature inversion is mostly caused by terrestrial cooling during
Calm, clear nights causing the lower levels of air to become cooler than the higher levels
thus inverting the normal temp lapse rate pattern. Since the colder, heavier air wants to
stay near the surface and the warmer air wants to stay aloft, the air is very stable. Temp
inversions provide stable, smooth flight conditions below the transitioning point to the
warmer layer, but poor visibility due to trapped dirt and dust particles.
Temp inversions can also be caused by warm fronts pushing warm air over cold air.
_ 7. What does convective activity mean?
The vertical movement of air due to thermal activity caused by heating from below
_ 8. What does advection mean?
The horizontal transportation of matter (air) due to the equalization of different air
pressures (wind)
_ 9. What is the standard pressure lapse rate?
The amount of air pressure loss with altitude. About 1” Hg per 1,000 ft
_ 10. What does the term dew point mean? Explain relative humidity.
Dew point:
The air temperature at which water vapor in the air would condensate and become visible.
Dew forms.
Relative humidity:
The relationship between how much moisture a parcel of air is holding compared to how
much it could hold before the moisture becomes visible. (100%)
_ 11. How do clouds and fog form?
Clouds and fog can form as soon as air becomes saturated.
If Temp/Dew point spread is within 2˚ C or 4˚ F and decreasing, you can count on log
clouds and fog.
_ 12. What is coriolis force? Not to be mistaken with coriolis effect on a rotor systems.
The apparent deflection of the flow path of any free flowing matter like air or water due to
the spherical shape of the earth. While air or water flows in a straight line, the earth’s
surface is moving along it’s curved shape. Therefore it causes the air to be deflected to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
It causes winds to flow parallel to the isobars and rotate to the left in low pressure systems
(cyclonic) and right in high pressure systems(anti-cyclonic).
There is no Coriolis force at the equator since the flow path is in line with the movement of
the earth’s surface.
Clouds and fog
 See also attached cloud handout.
_ 13. How do clouds form?
When air reaches the dew point, invisible water vapor becomes visible.
Water vapor needs a surface area to condensate on. In the air it uses particles, like
dust or any other micro-particle, to condensate on. Those particles are also called
“condensation nuclei”
_ 14. Explain the different families and types of clouds
Families: Low: Surface – 6,500
Types:
(stratus, fair weather cumulus, stratocumulus, nimbostratus)
Stratus clouds are layered clouds that form in stable air near the surface
due to cooling from below; gray uniform appearance; cover a wide area; low
turbulence but restrict visual flight due to low ceilings and low visibility; icing
possibilities when temperatures are below freezing.
Fair weather cumulus clouds are white, puffy cotton-like clouds that form in
convective currents resulting from the heating of the earth’s surface. In fairly clear skies,
they are called fair weather cumulus. They indicate a shallow layer of instability. Expect
turbulence but little icing or precipitation.
Stratocumulus clouds are white puffy clouds that form when stable air is lifted
Nimbostratus clouds are gray, dark clouds several thousand feet thick and
produce widespread areas of rain and/or snow. They are all liquid moisture and, if below
freezing, supercooled water droplet content is high, thus the potential for aircraft icing is
high.
Attention: There is an error in the AC 00-6A FAA weather book.
1. Nimbostratus is in the middle cloud family. It needs to be in the low cloud
family.
2. Also, the Jeppesen puts fair weather cumulus into the clouds w. vertical
development. AC 00-6A puts them into the low cloud family which in my
opinion they belong in anyway. Fair weather cumulus is not extending
vertically at this point. If they would, we would call them towering cumulus.
Family: Middle: 6,500 – 23,000 (per AC 00-6A FAA weather book) 6,500 – 20,000 (per Jepp book)
Types:
(altocumulus, altostratus)
Altocumulus clouds are a gray or white mixture of puffy and layered clouds.
They extend over a wide area and indicate light turbulence but may contain supercooled
water droplets.
Altostratus clouds are flat, dense gray-white layered clouds that cover a wider area.
They indicate minimal turbulence but produce moderate aircraft icing.
Family: High: 16,500 – 45,000 (per AC 00-6A FAA weather book) 20,000 and higher (per Jepp book)
Types:
(Cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus)
Cirrus clouds form in stable air at high altitudes. They are thin, wispy or streaky and
form around 30,000 ft. against a blue sky. Since they are sometimes blown from the
tops of thunderstorms, they can be a warning of approaching bad weather.
Cirrostratus clouds are thin, white clouds that form in long bands or sheets. Although
several thousand feet thick, moisture content is low and therefore poses no threat of an
icing hazard.
Cirrocumulus clouds are patchy, white clouds that look like cotton. They form as a
result of shallow convective currents at high altitudes and may contain light turbulence.
Family: Clouds with Vertical Development: 1,000 ft or less to above 10,000 ft
Types:
(Cumulus, towering cumulus, cumulonimbus)
Towering cumulus clouds look like large mounts of cotton with billowing cauliflower
tops. Their color may vary from brilliant white at the top to gray near the bottom.
Towering cumulus clouds indicate a fairly deep area of unstable air. They contain
moderate to heavy turbulence with icing and often develop into thunderstorms.
Cumulonimbus clouds, more commonly called thunderstorms, are large, vertically
developed clouds that form in very unstable air. They are gray-white to black in color
and contain large amounts of moisture. They present some of the biggest threats to safe
aircraft flight.
Fog
_ 15. What is fog and why and how does it form?
Fog is a low cloud that has a base within 50 feet of the ground. If less than 20 feet
deep it is called ground fog. Fog forms due to cooling of the air close to the ground to its
dew point and condensation occurs.
The following forms of cooling and subsequent fogs occur:
Radiation fog: Cooling from terrestrial radiation on clear, calm, humid, nights over low-lying flat
surfaces and usually “burns off” when the sun rises and temperature increases.
Advection fog: Cooling from a warm moist body of air traveling horizontally mostly from areas
over water reaching cold land surface. Common under cloudy skies along coast lines. Winds of
up to 15 kits aid in forming this type of fog. Winds of more than 15 kts may convert it into low
level stratus clouds.
Upslope fog: Moist air being pushed upslope reaching the dew point due to adiabatic cooling
(cooling due to expansion) and higher altitude. It can form in moderate to strong winds under
cloudy skies.
Steam fog: Cold, dry air moves over relatively warm water causing it to evaporate and
immediately condensate again resembling rising smoke. Low-level turbulence and icing is
associated with steam fog due to unstable air.
Precipitation-induced fog: If warm rain or drizzle in a warm front falls through a cooler layer of
air near the surface, evaporation from the falling precipitation may saturate the cool air and cause
very intense fog.
Ice fog: If air is cooled down to its dew point very abruptly and the dew point is well below the
freezing point, the water vapor forms ice crystals instead of micro-water droplets.
_ 16. Explain the connection between pressure systems and the formation of clouds.
Lows promote lifting, unstable air thus cloud formation. Highs promote stable air
thus less cloud formation.
_ 17. What is an air mass?
A body of air with uniform properties. (temp, moisture, pressure)
_ 18. What are fronts?
The boundary layer between two air masses.
_ 19. What are isobars?
Lines on a weather chart that depict areas of equal pressure.
_ 20. What is the biggest danger for aircraft flying through cold clouds?
Structural icing
_ 21. Explain the types of icing that we can encounter while flying.
1. Induction (carburetor) icing.
2. Impact ice (engine air inlet becomes clogged with ice)
3. Structural icing (wings, rotor blades, props, all other components, weighing down the
aircraft)
_ 22. Name all four types of structural icing.
1. Clear
2. Rime
3. Mixed
4. Frost
_ 23. How does frost form?
When air reaches the dew point and the dew point is below freezing, frost forms by
deposition of the water vapor directly out of the air onto a surface instead of dew.
Thunderstorms
_ 24. How do thunderstorms form?
Moist, unstable air is being lifted and builds large vertically extending
cumulonimbus clouds in three stages.
Cumulus stage: Updrafts are building the towering cumulus clouds (TCU). Moisture is
condensing and its released latent heat causes the air to rise even more.
Mature stage: Begins when the rain drops held up by updrafts are so heavy they begin to
fall to the ground and downdrafts start to build in the surrounding air. Updrafts inside the
cloud and downdrafts outside the cloud create severe turbulence, and where the downdrafts
reach the ground a gust front forms. This is the most violent stage of a TS. Hail may form as a
result of frozen water droplets being pushed up and down between the freezing level and the
below freezing level accumulating more and more layers of ice around them, eventually getting
pushed out of an anvil top of a TS cloud.
Dissipating stage: Is the beginning of the end of the TS. The precipitation-induced downdrafts
are taking over, decreasing the latent heat release, which takes away the thermal energy, and
eventually the storm weakens and dies.
_ 25. What are the biggest dangers of a TS?
Turbulence, hail, lightning, low visibility, hurricanes and tornadoes.
_ 26. How far away do you need to be to avoid turbulence?
20 miles for severe thunderstorms (SSH 30 miles)
_ 27. Name the two common classifications of thunderstorms.
Air mass thunderstorms – formed by convective (heating from below) activity.
Frontal thunderstorms – (or steady state TS) which mostly form a line parallel to a front.
_ 28. What types of turbulence do you know?
Mechanical turbulence – valleys, canyons, trees, man-made objects
Convective turbulence – thermal turbulence (heating from below causing vertical air
movement, wind shears, etc…)
Frontal turbulence – Just ahead of a fast moving cold front, updrafts can reach 1,000
ft/min, combined with surface winds and convection, severe turbulence can occur.
Wake turbulence – wingtip vortices from lift-producing airplanes cause a severe
downward and spiraling turbulence which can easily overpower other aircraft and invert
them.
Mountain Wave turbulence – (type of mechanical turbulence) occurs when stable air
moves across a mountain ridge. Smooth winds (laminar flow) of 40 kts or more cross a mountain
ridge line and may build a wave pattern. On the lee side of the mountain, if sufficient moisture is
present, rotor clouds might indicate severe turbulence. Standing lenticular clouds can form at the
crest of the wave and contain high winds of 50 kts or more.
Clear Air turbulence (CAT)- Commonly observed at alt. above 15,000 ft. but can occur
anywhere. Interference of layers of air with different wind speeds. Often develops in or near the
jet stream.
_ 29. What is wind shear?
A change in wind speed and/or direction over a short distance. Wind shear is
associated with convective precipitation, jet stream, and frontal zones.
_ 30. Why is there mostly wind shear in temperature inversions?
Two layers of air separated by a temperature difference, moving at different wind speeds
cause wind shear where the two layers mix and create friction and shearing.
_ 31. What is a microburst?
An intense burst of downdrafts. The most severe form of wind shear in a vertical plane.
It can occur everywhere, especially in the vicinity of thunderstorms and convective
precipitation. Downdrafts up to 6,000 ft/min. When reaching the surface, the wind can
change 45 kts head to tail wind, mostly vertically less than 1,000 ft and horizontally less
than 1 N.M. Duration mostly less than 15 min. Highest intensity level between 1-5 min.
_ 32. What are the dangers of microburst?
The downdrafts might exceed the performance capabilities of your aircraft and, if close to
the ground, may push you into terrain. Controllability issues of the aircraft due to severe
airspeed changes.
_ 33. What is virga?
Streaks of rain that evaporate before reaching the ground. Often seen in warm
frontal weather.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 13: __
Passing if 30 correct
Weather Information
_ 1. Where do you get weather information from on the ground?
Weather briefing: 1-800-WX-BRIEF (FSS),
Television: e.g. weather channel
Web:
www.Aviationweather.noaa.gov (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations),
www.duat.com
www.duats.com
Direct User Access Terminal Service. Those are two vendors that provide direct access to FAA
certified weather information and flight planning tools.
ATIS: Automated Terminal Information Service. Recorded mandatory weather and airport info
including NOTAMs produced with ASOS and AWOS data as well as human observers.
AWOS = Automated Weather Observing System. The older system around since 1979
ASOS = Automated Surface Observing System. The newer system around since 1991
AWSS = Automated Weather Sensor System The newest follow on program
For the differences between AWOS and ASOS check 7-1-12
Phone numbers for most ATIS and AWOS and ASOS are available in the A/FD
_ 2. What is an FSS? What an AFSS
Flight Service Station / Automated FSS. (you can get recorded information (TIBS) from the
automated FSS before you talk to a briefer)
Your primary source of aeronautical information directly pertaining to your flight operation.
This includes:
Weather briefings: standard – abbreviated – outlook
notice to airmen (especially temporary flight restrictions TFRs)
Filing opening and closing VFR/IFR flight plans
Getting information about special use airspace SUA (what their status is for example)
Getting information about MTRs (military training routes)
_ 3. How can you reach them in the air?
122.2 MHz is the standard frequency. Other frequencies are on top of the VOR information
boxes on aeronautical charts.
TIBS from the AFSS
_ 4. What is the telephone information briefing service (TIBS)?
Provided by AFSSs and provides continuous telephone recordings of meteorological
and/or aeronautical information. TIBS contains area and/or route briefings, airspace
procedures, and special announcements, if applicable. TIBS should also contain, but not
limited to, METARs, aviation terminal forecasts (TAF), and winds/temperatures aloft
forecasts.
TWEB Transcribed Weather Broadcast
_ 5. What is TWEB?
Text products for the contiguous U.S. including synopsis and forecast for more than 200
routes and local vicinities. Available through Telephone Information Briefing Service
(TIBS) and Pilot’s Automatic Telephone Weather Answering Service (PATWAS). TWEB
products are valid for 12 hrs. and are issued 4 times a day at 0200z, 0800z, 1400z, and
2000z. A TWEB route forecast or vicinity forecast will not be issued if the TAF for that
airport has not been issued. A NIL TWEB will be issued instead.
_ 6. Where do you get weather information from in the air?
FSS: 122.2 MHz
TWEB: Transcribed Weather Broadcast. Continuous broadcast over low/medium frequency
(L/MF) and VHF omni-directional radio range (VOR) facilities. Provides en route forecast.
ASOS / AWOS: Available through VOR frequencies. (Little black circle with an “A” in VOR box)
HIWAS: Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service. Available through VOR frequencies
(black circle with “H” in VOR box)
ATIS: Frequencies for ATIS on aviation charts and in the A/FD
Severe Weather Reports and Forecasts
Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories 7-1-6
_ 7. What is an AIRMET (WA)? How long is it valid?
Airman’s Meteorological Information valid for 6 hrs. Of operational interest to all aircraft.
Potentially hazardous to smaller, lighter, and less capable aircraft due to lack of
equipment, instrumentation and/or pilot qualification.
AIRMET Sierra – Warns of IFR conditions effecting more than 50% of the area and/or extensive
mountain obscuration.
AIRMET Tango – Warns of moderate turbulence, strong surface winds of 30 kts or greater,
and/or non-convective low-level wind shear.
AIRMET Zulu – Warns of moderate icing and provides freezing level heights.
_ 8. What is a SIGMET (WS)? How long is it valid?
Significant meteorological Information valid for 4 hrs. If associated with hurricanes
It’s valid for 6 hrs. Hazardous weather warning effecting all
aircraft about severe icing not associated with TS. Severe or extreme turbulence or clear
air turbulence (CAT) not associated with TS. Dust storms and/or sand storms lowering
surface or inflight visibility to below 3 miles. Volcanic ash.
In Alaska and Hawaii, SIGMETs are also issued for:
Tornadoes
Lines of thunderstorms.
Embedded thunderstorms.
Hail greater than or equal to ¾ inch in diameter.
_ 9. What is a convective SIGMET (WST)? How long is it valid?
Convective Significant Meteorological Information valid for 2 hrs.
Issued for:
Severe TS
Embedded TS
Lines of TS
Tornadoes
TS over a wide area. Precipitation greater or equal to heavy precipitation affecting 40%
or more of an area at least 3,000 square miles.
Hail at the surface greater than or equal to ¾ in. in diameter
Surface winds greater than or equal to 50 kts.
Any convective SIGMETs imply severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, and low-level
wind shear.
Inflight Weather Broadcasts 7-1-10
_ 10. What is a Severe Weather Watch Bulletin (WW)?
Warning for possible TS and tornadoes disseminated through ALL available mass media.
An Alert Severe Weather Watch message (AWW) is sent as a preliminary message to
forecasters and weather briefer to alert of a WW.
_ 11. What is a Center Weather Advisory (CWA)?
The ARTCC (Air Route Traffic Control Center) alerts pilots of adverse weather
conditions. They broadcast once on all but the emergency frequencies and include
SIGMETs, convective SIGMETs, and AWW.
_ 12. What is HIWAS?
Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service – A continuous broadcast of the above
mentioned weather advisories AWW, SIGMETs, Convective SIGMETs, AIRMETs, and urgent
PIREPs over selected VOR frequencies. If available it is indicated on the charts by an H in a
small black circle in the VOR information box.
_ 13. When will a Hurricane Advisory (WH) be issued?
When a hurricane threatens a coastline and is within 300 N.M. from the shore.
What do convective outlooks (AC) alert pilots of?
The probability of severe TS. The probability is either described as slight, moderate, or
severe.
An AC is part of the convective outlook chart which depicts the areas of possible severe
TS.
_ 14. Where can we get information about wind shear?
AIRMET, PIREP, Convective SIGMET, low-level wind shear alerts from ATC
_ 15. What is EFAS?
En Route Flight Advisory Service, also known as “Flight Watch” 7-1-5
The weather portion of the Flight service stations provide weather information and PIREPs
along your specific flight route.
You can request it in the air on 122.0 MHz and is best reached between 5,000 AGL and
17,500 MSL.
Above 18,000 – 45,000 discrete frequencies have been established to ensure coverage
during your flight.
_ 16. What are the two main groups of weather information?
Reports and forecasts
Weather Reports
Weather observing programs
_ 17. How is weather data collected?
On the surface through manual observers, ASOS, and AWOS (AWSS)
Upper air observation with weather balloons (RADATs – Radiosonde Additional Data)
Satellites, radar stations, and PIREPs (pilot reports)
_ 18. What is AWOS and ASOS?
7-1-12 – Automated Weather observing System and Automated Surface Observing
System.
_ 19. What is a PIREP?
7-1-21 – Pilot Reports coded as UA or UUA (upper air information or urgent upper air
information). In flight reports from pilots updating and/or correcting predicted weather.
Especially important and helpful in warning other pilots for hazardous weather conditions.
PIREP format 7-1-21
_ 20. ATIS?
Automatic Terminal Information Service – continuous broadcast of recorded noncontrol
primarily weather information. It’s purpose is to improve controller effectiveness and to
relieve frequency congestion by automating the repetitive transmission of essential but
routine information.
It may include important local or distant NOTAMs. It is produced with ASOS and AWOS as
well as human observers.
_ 21. METAR? How often are they reported?
7-1-31 AC 00-45E pg. 2-1
Meteorological Aviation Report – reported hourly H+50-60 unless SPECI (special) report
necessary. Human observation as well as ASOS and AWOS data is used to produce
METARs to report weather at an airport.
_ 22. Radar Weather Reports (SD)? How often are they reported? How long are they valid?
AC 00-45E pg. 3-6
Radar Weather Report – reported hourly H+35. General areas of precipitation including
rain, snow, and TS can be observed by radar. The SD includes the type, intensity, and
location of the echo top of the precipitation as well as cell movement of precipitation.
_ 23. Satellite Weather Pictures?
Updated from 15 min to 1 hr. AC 00-45E pg. 3-11
Just for the sake of completing it ;-) You don’t ever have to use this.
RADATs – Radiosonde Additional Data – AC 00-45E pg. 3-15 – Weather balloon
s with radio transmitters report freezing levels and relative humidity conducted twice a day. 0000z
and 1200z.
Weather Forecasts
_ 24. Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) Also called Aviation Terminal Forecast.
How often are they reported? How long are they valid?
AC 00-45E p. 4-1
TAFs are derived from METARs. Predicted wx within 5 s.m. from the destination airport.
The National Weather Service (NWS) requires an airport to have 2 consecutive METAR
observations neither less than 30 min apart nor more than 1 hr apart before a TAF will be
issued. Optionally, there could be wind shear predictions in a TAF. It would be coded
(e.g.) WS 020/35035KT
 Reported: 4 times/day, valid: 24 hours
_ 25. Aviation Area Forecast (FA). How often is it reported? How long is it valid?
AC 00-45E p. 4-17
FA is a forecast of visual meteorological conditions, clouds, and general wx conditions
over an area the size of several states. Use to determine en route wx and to substitute for
airports for which no TAFs could be issued.
 Reported: 3 times/day, valid: 12 hrs with a 6 hr categorical (VFR/MVFR/IFR)outlook.
_ 26. Winds and Temperatures Aloft (FD). How often is it reported? How long is it valid?
AC 00-45E p. 4-35
Winds and Temperatures aloft,
 Reported: 2 times/day, valid: 12 hrs
_ 27. Convective Outlook (AC). How often is it reported? How long is it valid?
AC 00-45E p. 4-41
An AC is a national forecast of severe thunderstorms. There is two forecasts: Day 1 (first
24 hours) and Day 2 (next 24 hours). The forecast depicts areas in which there is a slight,
moderate or high risk of severe thunderstorms.
Issued 5 times daily for day , valid for 24 hours, and 2 times for day 2, valid for 24 hours.
It’s a flight planning tool used to avoid thunderstorms.
Aviation Weather Charts
Identify and explain:
_ 28. Surface Analysis Chart
AC 00-45E pg. 5-1 (Fig. 5-1)
It is a computer-generated chart transmitted every 3 hrs covering the 48 contiguous
states and adjacent areas. It provides a ready means of locating pressure systems and
fronts. It also gives an overview of winds, temperatures, and dew points at chart time.
_ 29. Weather Depiction Chart
AC 00-45E pg. 6-1 (Fig. 6-3)
Computer-generated (with human frontal analysis) from METAR reports. It gives a broad
overview of the observed flying category conditions (VFR/MVFR/IFR) at the valid time of
the chart. This chart begins at 01z each day, is transmitted at 3 hr intervals, and is valid at
the time of the plotted data.
_ 30. Radar Summary Chart
AC 00-45E pg. 7-1 (Fig. 7-1)
Computer-generated graphical display of a collection of automated radar weather reports
(SD). This chart displays areas of precipitation as well as information about type, intensity,
configuration, coverage, echo top, and cell movement of precipitation. Severe wx watches
are plotted as dashed lined boxes, if they are in effect when the chart is valid. The chart is
available hourly with a valid time of H+35 (35 min past the hour)
_ 31. Forecast Winds and Temperatures Aloft (FD) Chart
AC 00-45E pg. 10-1
Prepared for 8 levels on 8 separate panels. The levels are 6,000; 9,000; 12,000; 18,000;
24,000; 30,000; 34,000; 39,000 ft MSL. They are available daily, and the 12 hr progs are
valid at 1200z and 0000z.
_ 32. Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart
AC 00-45E pg. 11-1 (Fig. 11-1)
Is a 1 day forecast of significant wx for the conterminous United States. Left panels are
12 hr forecasts. Right panels are 24 hr forecasts. Both lower and higher panels are from
the surface to 24,000 ft MSL (400 mb)
_ 33. Convective Outlook Chart
AC 00-45E pg. 12-1(Fig. 12.1)
Shows areas in which there is either a slight, moderate, or high risk of severe TS. It is
divided into a Day 1 chart and a Day 2 chart. Issued 5 times daily.
Categorical Outlook Terms
_ 34. Explain the terms VFR, IFR, MVFR, SVFR
7-1-7
VFR = Visual Flight Rules. Can only be flown when VMC
(visual meteorological conditions) are prevailing.
Vis 5sm, Ceil 3,000 ft
IFR
= Instrument Flight Rules. Can be flown either in VMC but must be flown in
IMC (instrument meteorological conditions)
Vis <3sm, Ceil <1,000 ft
MVFR = Marginal Visual Flight Rules.
Vis 3sm, Ceil  1,000 ft
SVFR = Special permission granted to VFR aircraft to fly below VFR minimums.
_ 35. What are the SVFR regulations for helicopters?
91.157
Helicopters are exempt from the visibility and instrument requirements for airplanes.
For helicopters you only need clearance from ATC and you need to stay clear of clouds.
SVFR can only be granted within the airspace contained by the upward extension of the
lateral boundaries of the controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport. That
means only in the area of the airspace that is overlying the surface of the airport. For
example: The core area of class C.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 14: __
Passing if 19 correct
Navigation
Visual Navigation
_ 1. What is pilotage?
Navigation with reference to visual landmarks on the surface cross referencing to
aeronautical charts.
_ 2. What is dead reckoning?
Navigation with reference to predicted compass headings, obtained by time and distance
calculations and wind and temperature predictions from wx services.
Radio Navigation
_ 3. What is Radio Navigation?
Navigation with reference to instruments such as VORs, ADFs-NDBs, RMIs, HSIs.
_ 4. What are NAVAIDs?
Navigational facilities like VORs and NDBs
_ 5. What is an NDB?
Non-Directional Beacon. A radio signal transmitting station that can be received with an
ADF (Automatic Direction Finder). The signal is transmitted without any direction
indicating properties.
_ 6. What is a bearing?
A course to or from a station or location.
_ 7. How do you use an NDB?
Select the NDB frequency from the chart (magenta box) into the nav radio and press the
“ADF” button. Verify the morse code of the station and follow the ADF needle (homing) or
track (bracketing is used to find your wind correction angle) the bearing to the station.
_ 8. What is a VOR?
Very high frequency Omni (directional) Range. A radio signal transmitting station that
can be received with a VOR receiver. The signal can be interpreted as either a radial
(bearing from the station) or a bearing to the station, depending on a TO or FROM
indication on the VOR receiver.
_ 9. What is a radial?
A signal is identified for each degree of the azimuth around the VOR as a so-called
radial, which is a magnetic bearing from the station.
_ 10. What is DME?
Distance Measuring Equipment. It measures the slant range between your aircraft and
the facility. It works automatically if you are navigating with a VOR/DME or a VORTAC
since it runs on a paired frequency with the VOR frequency. All you have to do is turn on
the DME in your cockpit and put the VOR frequency into your nav. Radio.
_ 11. What is TACAN?
Tactical Air Navigation Facility. A military facility.
_ 12. What is a VORTAC?
A co-located VOR and TACAN. It enables civilian pilots to use VOR and DME
functionality of the station. Military pilot use the TACAN portion of it too.
_ 13. What is VOR/DME?
A VOR facility with DME.
_ 14. How do you use a VOR?
Select the VOR or VORTAC frequency from the chart (blue box close to the VOR) into the
nav radio, verify the morse code of the station and turn the OBS (Omni Bearing Selector)
until the CDI (Course Deviation Indicator) is centered. With a FROM indication, you are on
the radial that is indicated on the top of the VOR compass rose scale. With a TO
indication, you are on the magnetic bearing to the station. Turn towards that bearing and
follow it to the station by tracking the bearing.
_ 15. How do you test a VOR?
Use a VOR checkpoint on the ground or in the air. The A/FD specifies VOR ground and
airborne checkpoints. Position yourself on the radial. The CDI indication needs to be
within plus or minus 4 degrees on the ground and plus or minus 6 degrees in the air. A
VOT = VOR testing facility allows you to test your VOR regardless of your position. It
transmits only the 360 degree radial. Turn your VOR to the published VOT frequency and
read either 360 FROM or 180 TO. The indication has to be within plus or minus 4 degrees
of this radial. You can also utilize the radial that defines the centerline of an airway as a
reference point to check your VOR. You can also cross-reference 2 VOR receivers against
each other. When comparing 2 VOR tuned into the same VOR facility, the difference
should not exceed 4 degrees. AIM 1-1-4
_ 16. What is GPS?
Global Positioning System. 24 satellites and 5 additional spares are in a 10,900 n.m.
orbit. 5 satellites are in permanent view. 3 satellites necessary for a 2D read-out. 4
satellites are necessary to determine a 3D position.
_ 17. What are waypoints?
Coordinates of N latitude and W longitude are used as so-called waypoints in GPS
navigation.
_ 18. What does RNAV mean?
Area Navigation utilizing: INS (Intertial Navigation System), LORAN (Long Range
Nagivation), VOR/DME, GPS. By utilizing the above systems, it is possible to create
random waypoints to navigate to and from within an area. You are not restricted to
navigate just between nav facilities anymore.
Diversion
_ 19. What does diversion mean?
That you are forced to fly to an alternate destination due to unforeseeable problems with
the first intended destination, e.g. deteriorating weather.
_ 20. What do you need to do if you have to divert?
Identify your current position, determine possible alternates and choose the most
appropriate in terms of distance, services, terrain, etc… While en route, estimate time,
distance, and fuel consumption.
Lost Procedures
_ 21. What do you do if you get lost?
Do you remember the 5 C’s? Climb, communicate, confess, comply, conserve, add
circle so you don’t become more lost. I personally include a 7th C…CURSE!! ;-)
Communicate with any available facility. Confess your situation and comply with their
instructions. If you cannot reach anybody, use the emergency frequency.
Compare your compass to the heading indicator. If, for example, the compass indicates 10
degrees more than the heading indicator, you might be to the right of your intended
course. Since the heading indicator has gyroscopic drift it lags behind the compass if not
synchronized with the compass regularly.
_ 22. What do you know about DF Steer?
An FSS can utilize a VHF Direction Finder (VHF/DF) to home in on your radio signal. You
will be asked to key your microphone, while the DF equipment displays the magnetic
bearing to your aircraft. Now the FSS can vector you to a nearby airport or other facility or
landmark to help to re-orient yourself. This service is often referred to as a DF steer.
1-1-16 VHF/DF services can be found in the AF/D.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 15: __
Passing if 10 correct
Cross Country Flight Planning
_ 1. What does good cockpit management mean?
Know where everything is located and keep charts and other equipment available in the
order you will need it during flight. This ensures that you can fly the aircraft and you are
not distracted and “fall behind the aircraft” You want to “stay ahead of your aircraft at all
times”
_ 2. What is magnetic variation?
The angular difference between the true course and magnetic course caused by the
difference in the location between the geographic north pole (true north) and the magnetic
north pole (magnetic north). It is depicted on aeronautical charts with isogonic lines
(magenta dashed long lines that cross over the entire chart)
_ 3. What is an isogonic line? What is an agonic line?
a. A line of equal magnetic variation
b. A line of zero magnetic variation
_ 4. What is magnetic deviation?
Electromagnetic fields e.g. from radios and metal shielding inside the cockpit that deviate
the compass indications. Deviation is different for each heading. The compass correction
card lists the degrees of deviation for each heading so you can steer with the corrected
amount.
_ 5. Why do we produce a cross country flight log?
A cross country flight log ensures that we can utilize dead reckoning.
_ 6. Show me how to produce one.
Have student walk you through the process.
_ 7. What charts do we use for VFR night flight?
World Aeronautical Charts (WAC: scale 1:1,000,000)
Sectional (1:500,000)
Terminal (1:250,000)
Helicopter Route Chart (1:125,000)
_ 8. Where do you get all available information regarding your flight? Name all sources.
Charts, A/FD, Web (e.g. DUATS), AFSS (TIBS), FSS, contacting your destination. (airport)
_ 9. How do you convert standard time to UTC (Zulu)?
Add 5 hrs for eastern, 6 hrs for central, 7 hrs for mountain, 8 hrs for pacific time zones.
Subtract 1 hr from each when daylight saving time is in effect. For UTC to local, subtract
the above hrs.
_ 10. Why should we file a flight plan?
To improve the chances of being rescued in case of a mishap. 30min after you did not
close your flight plan, the SAR system starts by calling the pilot’s number on the flight
plan. 1hr into it, the SAR system is fully activated and the Civil Air Patrol as well as other
organizations (police etc.) begin to search for you.
_ 11. Show me how you would file a VFR flight plan.
Evaluate if the student knows how to put the correct data into the flight planner form.
_ 12. When do you need to close your flight plan and with whom?
The FSS. Tower will do it for you on request if work load permits.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 16: __
Passing if 15 correct
National Airspace System
AIM Chapter 3
_ 1. What are the two main categories of airspace?
Regulatory: Class A, B, C, D, E, restricted, and prohibited
Nonregulatory: Class G, military operation areas, warning areas, alert areas, and
controlled firing areas.
Within these two categories there are four types of airspace:
a. Uncontrolled (Class G)
b. Controlled (A,B,C,D,E)
c. Special Use Airspace
d. Other airspace areas
_ 2. Define the below airspaces and the following:
a. General dimensions
b. Entry requirements
1. Equipment
2. Pilot certification
c. Visibilities, cloud clearances
d. Clearance requirements
e. Radar services
_ 3. Class A
1. General dimension
Vertically: 18,000 – 60,000 ft (FL180 – FL600)
Laterally: the airspace overlying the 48 contiguous states and Alaska and the waters within
12 n.m. of the coast of the.
2. Entry Requirements
Equipment – IFR instruments per 91.205 (d). Above FL240, DME is required if VOR
equipment is used for navigation.
Pilot Certification – Applicable instrument rating.
3. Visibilities, cloud clearances
n/a it’s IFR
4. Arrival or through flight entry requirements
ATC clearance is required.
5. Radar Services
IFR traffic separation provided by ARTCC (Air Route Traffic Control Center)
_ 4. Class B
1. General dimension
Vertically: Generally Sfc – 10,000 ft. MSL, three layered upside-down wedding cake
Laterally: Tailored to individual needs
2. Entry requirements
Equipment: Two-way radio, Mode C transponder
Pilot Certification: At least student pilot license with appropriate endorsements. No landings
at 12 busiest airports of the country without at least a private certificate 3-2-3 (2) & 91.131(b)
3. Visibilities, cloud clearances
Visibility 3 SM clear of clouds
4. Arrival or through flight entry requirements
ATC clearance required
5. Radar Services
IFR-VFR / VFR-VFR separation. Except helicopters.
_ 5. Class C
1. General dimension
Vertically: Generally Sfc – 4,000 ft. AGL charted in MSL.
Laterally: Core 5 n.m. radius.
Shelf from 1,200 – 4,000 ft. AGL. 10 n.m. radius.
Outer area not depicted = 20 n.m. radius. It is a service area and provides the same radar
service as in the airspace but on a workload-permitting basis.
2. Entry requirements
Equipment: Two-way radio, Mode C transponder
Pilot Certification: No specific certification required 3-2-4 (1)
3. Visibilities, cloud clearances
3 SM, 500 ft below, 1,000 above, 2,000 horizontal
4. Arrival or through flight entry requirements
Establish two-way radio communication
5. Radar services
IFR-VFR separation. VFR-VFR traffic sequenced, not separated.
_ 6. Class D
1. General dimension
Vertically: Generally Sfc – 2,500 AGL charted in MSL.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Laterally: Tailored to individual needs.
If instrument approach procedures are published, the airspace will normally be designed to
contain the procedures.
Entry requirements
Equipment: Two-way radio
Pilot Certification: No specific certification required 3-2-5 (1)
Visibilities, cloud clearances
3 SM, 500 below, 1,000 above, 2,000 horizontal
Arrival or through flight entry requirements
Establish two-way radio communication
Radar services
No separation for VFR aircraft, just sequencing
_ 7. Class E
1. General dimension
Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, B, C, or D, and it is controlled airspace, it is Class E.
2. Entry Requirements
Equipment: No specific equipment required
Pilot Certification: No specific certification required 3-2-6 (1)
3. Visibilities, cloud clearances
Below 10,000 ft. MSL: 3 SM, 500 below, 1,000 above, 2,000 horizontal
Above 10,000 ft. MSL: 5 SM, 1,000 below, 1,000 above, 1 SM horizontal
4. Arrival or through flight entry requirements
No specific requirements
5. Radar services
No separation for VFR aircraft
Check the types of class E airspace: 3-2-6 e. and discuss with student.
_ 8. Class G
1. General dimension
Class G airspace (uncontrolled) is that portion of airspace that has not been designated as
Class A, B, C, D or E airspace.
2. Entry requirements
Equipment – No specific equipment required
Pilot Certification – No specific certification required
3. Visibilities, cloud clearances
Below 1,200 ft AGL regardless of MSL: Safe speed, clear of clouds day or night 91.155 (b)
Above 1,200 ft AGL below 10,000 MSL: Day: 1 SM, 500 below, 1,000 above, 2,000 horiz.
Night: 3 SM, 500 below, 1,000 above, 2,000 horiz.
Above 1,200 ft AGL above 10,000 MSL: 5 SM, 1,000 below, 1,000 above, 1 SM horizontal,
day or night.
4. Arrival or through flight entry requirements
No specific requirements
5. Radar services
N/A
_ 9. What are the SVFR regulations for helicopters?
91.157
SVFR – A special permission granted to VFR aircraft to fly below VFR minimums. You
need clearance from ATC and you need to stay clear of clouds. Helicopters are exempt
from the visibility and instrument requirements for airplanes. SVFR can only be granted
within the airspace contained by the upward extension of the lateral boundaries of the
controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport.
_ 10. What does Mode C transponder mean?
91.215
_ 11. When and why do you need to operate a mode C transponder?
91.215
Above 10,000 MSL excluding 2,500 ft AGL, in and above class B and C, above class C,
within the class B mode-c veil.
ATC needs to be able to see your altitude for radar separation.
Special Use Airspace
_ 12. Name all special use airspaces and give a definition and its purpose.
Regulatory
Prohibited areas: 3-4-2 Prohibits any flights and are established for national security or other
reasons associated with the national welfare. These areas are published in the Federal Register
and are depicted on aeronautical charts. Through flight information can be obtained from the FSS.
Restricted area: 3-4-3 May contain unusual, often invisible hazards to aircraft, such as artillery
firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. Either the using or the controlling agency (using agency
e.g. NASA or DDD; controlling agency is FAA) has to grant permission if a pilot requests to enter
the airspace. The appropriate agency, times of use, and contact frequencies are published on
aeronautical charts. Through flight information can be obtained from the FSS.
Nonregulatory (acronym W3MAC)
W3 = Warning areas: 3-4-4 Airspace of defined dimensions, extending from 3 n.m.
outward from the coast of the U.S. that contains activity that may be hazardous to
nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose of such warning areas is to warn nonparticipating pilots of
the potential danger. A warning area may be located over domestic or international waters or
both.
M = Military Operations areas: 3-4-5 MOAs consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral
limits established for the purpose of separating certain military training activities from IFR traffic.
Examples of activities conducted in MOAs include, but are not limited to: air combat tactics, air
intercepts, aerobatics, formation training, and low-altitude tactics.
Pilots operating under VFR should exercise extreme caution while flying within a MOA when
military activity is being conducted. The activity status (active/inactive) of MOAs may change
frequently. Therefore, pilots should contact any FSS within 100 miles of the area to obtain
accurate real-time information concerning the MOA hours of operation. Prior to entering an active
MOA, pilots should contact the controlling agency for traffic advisories.
A = Alert areas: 3-4-6 Depicted on aeronautical charts to inform nonparticipating pilots of areas
that may contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual type of aerial activity. Pilots should
be particularly alert when flying in these areas. All activity within an alert area shall be conducted
in accordance with CFRs, without waiver, and pilots of participating aircraft as well as pilots
transiting the area shall be equally responsible for collision avoidance.
C = Controlled Firing areas: 3-4-7 CFAs contain activities which, if not conducted in a controlled
environment, could be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. The distinguishing feature of the
CFA, as compared to other special use airspace, is that its activities are suspended immediately
when spotter aircraft, radar, or ground look-out positions indicate an aircraft may be approaching
the area. There is no need to chart CFAs since they do not cause a nonparticipating aircraft to
change its flight path.
_ 13. Where do you get information about these areas?
Aeronautical charts, A/FD, FSS, ATC, ARTCC
Other airspace areas
_ 14. Name all airspace that belongs to the section “Other Airspace Areas” and give a definition and their
purpose.
a. Airport Advisory / Information Service
b. Military Training Routes
c. Temporary Flight Restrictions
d. Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations
e. Published VFR Routes
f. Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA)
g. National Security Area
Explanations for “Other Airspace Areas”
Airport Advisory / Information Service – 3-5-1
LAA – Local Airport Advisory: service is operated within 10 SM of an airport where a control
tower is not operating, but where an FSS is located on the airport. At such locations, the FSS
provides a complete local airport advisory service to arriving and departing aircraft. During
periods of fast changing WX, the FSS will automatically provide Final Guard as part of the service
from the time the aircraft reports “on-final” or “taking-the-active-runway” until the aircraft reports
“on-the-ground” or “airborne”.
RAA – Remote Airport Advisory: service is operated within 10 SM of specified high-activity GA
airports where a control tower is not operating. Airports offering this service are listed in the A/FD
and the published service hours may be changed by NOTAM D. Final Guard is automatically
provided with RAA.
RAIS – Remote Airport Information Service: is provided in support of short-term special events
like small to medium fly-ins. The service is advertised by NOTAM D only. The FSS will not have
access to a continuous readout of the current winds and altimeter therefore, RAIS does not
include WX and/or Final Guard service. However, known traffic, special event instructions, and all
other services are provided.
Military Training Routes: 3-5-2
Routes are either designated with VR = VFR military traffic or IF = IFR military traffic and with 2, 3,
or 4 numbers. 2 or 3 numbers means that military aircraft might fly above below or above 1,500
AGL in excess of 250 kts. 4 numbers means that military aircraft might fly below 1,500 AGL in
excess of 250 kts. Nonparticipating aircraft are not prohibited from flying within a MTR however,
extreme vigilance should be exercised when conducting flight through or near these routes. Pilots
should contact FSS within 100 n.m. of a particular MTR to obtain current information or route
usage in their vicinity. Information available includes times of scheduled activity, altitudes in use
on each route segment, and actual route width.
Temporary Flight Restrictions: 3-5-3
1. Protect persons and property in the air or on the surface from an existing or intermittent
hazard associated with an incident on the surface when the presence of low-flying aircraft
would magnify, alter, spread, or compound that hazard. (14 CFR Sec. 91.137) (a)(1))
2. Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft (14 CFR Sec. 91.137
(a)(2))
3. Prevent an unsafe congestion or sightseeing aircraft above an incident or event which may
generate a high degree of public interest (14 CFR Sec. 91.138 (a)(3))
4. Protect declared national disasters for humanitarian reasons in the State of Hawaii (14 CFR
Sec. 91.138)
5. Protect the President, Vice President, or other public figures 91.141
6. Provide a safe environment for space agency operations (14 CFR Sec. 91.143)
The FSS nearest the incident site is normally the “coordination facility”. TFRs with lateral and
vertical dimensions are made public through FDC NOTAMs. Graphic depiction of TFRs are
available on the FAA web site and DUAT and DUATS as well.
Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations: 3-5-4
Procedures relating to parachute jump areas are contained in 14 CFR Part 105. Tabulations of
parachute jump areas in the U.S. are contained in the A/FD.
Published VFR Routes: 3-5-5
Published VFR Routes for transitioning around, under, and through complex airspace such as
Class B airspace were developed through a number of FAA and industry initiatives. All of the
following terms, “VFR Flyway”, “VFR Corridor”, and “Class B Airspace VFR Transition Route”
have been used when referring to the same or different types of routes or airspace.
a. VFR Flyways
b. VFR Corridors
c. Class B Airspace VFR Transition Routes
a) VFR Flyways:
VFR Flyways and their associated Flyway Planning Charts were developed from the
recommendations of a National Airspace Review Task Group. A VFR Flyway is defined as a
general flight path, not a specific course, for use by pilots in planning flights into, out of, and
through or near complex terminal airspace to avoid Class B. An ATC clearance is not required to
fly these routes.
VFR Flyways are depicted on the reverse side of some of the VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC),
commonly referred to as Class B Airspace charts. Eventually all TACs will include a VFR Flyway
Planning Chart. These charts identify VFR Flyways designed to help VFR pilots avoid all major
controlled traffic flows.
b) VFR Corridors:
1. The design of a few of the first Class B airspace areas provided a corridor for the passage of
uncontrolled traffic. A VFR corridor is defined as airspace through Class B airspace with
defined vertical and lateral boundaries in which aircraft may operate without ATC clearance
or communication with air traffic control.
2. These corridors are, in effect, a “hole” through Class B airspace. (See Fig. 3-5-2) A classic
example would be the corridor through the Los Angeles Class B airspace, which has been
subsequently changed to Special Flight Rules airspace (SFR). A corridor is surrounded on
all sides by Class B airspace and does not extend down to the surface like a VFR Flyway.
Because of their definite lateral and vertical limits, and the volume of VFR traffic using a
corridor, extreme caution and vigilance must be exercised.
c) Class B Airspace VFR Transition Routes:
1. To accommodate VFR traffic through certain Class B airspace such as Seattle, Phoenix, and
Los Angeles, Class B Airspace VFR Transition Routes were developed. A Class B Airspace
VFR Transition Route is defined as a specific flight course depicted on a TAC for transitioning
a specific Class B airspace. These routes include specific ATC-assigned altitudes, and pilots
must obtain an ATC clearance prior to entering Class B airspace on the route.
2. These routes are designed to show the pilot where to position the aircraft outside of, or clear
of, where an ATC clearance can normally be expected with minimal or no delay. Until ATC
authorization is received, pilots must remain clear of Class B airspace. On initial contact,
pilots should advise ATC of their position, altitude, route name desired, and direction of flight.
After a clearance is received, pilots must fly the route as depicted and, most importantly,
adhere to ATC instructions.
Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA): 3-5-6
A TRSA is not a regulatory airspace. It is a service area. Participation in the radar separation
service is voluntary. VFR pilots are encouraged to participate. The primary airport(s) within the
TRSA become(s) Class D airspace. The remaining portion of the TRSA overlies other controlled
airspace, which is normally Class E airspace beginning at 700 or 1,200 ft and established to
transition to/from the en route/terminal environment.
National Security Area: 3-5-7
National Security Areas consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral dimensions established
at locations where there is a requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilities.
Pilots are requested to voluntarily avoid flying through the depicted NSA. When it is necessary to
provide a greater level of security and safety, flight in NSAs may be temporarily prohibited by
regulation under the provisions of 14 CFR Sec. 99.7 (National Security 5-6-1)
National Security 5-6-1
_ 15. What is an ADIZ?
Air Defense Identification Zone. Defined aerial borders of the U.S. Located at the physical
borders of the country and extending to 12 n.m. from the coast line.
_ 16. What are the requirements for flights across an ADIZ? 5-6-1
All aircraft entering domestic U.S. airspace from points outside must provide for
identification prior to entry. An IFR or DVFR (defense VFR) flight plan must be filed with an
appropriate aeronautical facility (ARTCC). Mode C Transponder is required. You must
adhere to the regulations established by 14 CFR 99.
Aeronautical Charts
_ 17. Locate the following:
_ Class B Airspace (dimension, mode-c veil)
_ Class C Airspace (dimensions)
_ Class D Airspace (ceiling (e.g. –27 up to but not including)
_ Class E Airspace (controlled airspace to the surface)
_ Class E Airspace (controlled airspace 700 ft to floor)
_ Class E Airspace (controlled airspace 1,200 ft to floor)
_ Class E Airspace (extensions to Class D airspace)
_ Class G Airspace (1,200 AGL standard, 14,500 MSL if outside of blue faded line)
Special Use Airspace (SUA):
_ Prohibited Area
_ Restricted Area
_ Warning Area
_ Military Operations Area
_ Alert Area
_ Controlled Firing Area
_ Flight Service Station frequencies
_ Glider Operating Area
_ Hard Surfaced Runway Airports
_ Non-hard Surfaced Runway
_ Military Airport
_ Private Airport
_ Non-Tower Airport
_ Isogonic Lines
_The agonic line
_ Maximum Elevation Figures
_ Finding Maximum Elevation in Quadrangle
_ Contour Lines
_ Elevation Color Chart
_ No Fixed Wing Special VFR available
_ Non-Directional Radio Beacons
_ Obstructions above 1,000 ft AGL
_ Obstructions below 1,000 ft AGL
_ Parachute Jumping Area
_ Part Time Lighting (pilot controlled lighting)
_ Wildlife Areas 7-4-6
_ Runway Length
_ UNICOM Frequencies
_ CTAF Frequencies
_ Victor Airways
_ Visual Checkpoints (available reporting points)
_ Intersections
_ VORTACs
_ HIWAS
_ TRSA (Terminal Radar Service Area), if available
_ TWEB
_ Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ)
_ Military Training Routes
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 17: __
Passing if 32 correct
Airport and Heliport Operations
Radio Communications
_ 1. What does ATC mean?
Air Traffic Control
_ 2. What is ARTCC?
Air Route Traffic Control Center – 20 centers control the IFR en route traffic. Workload
permitting, certain VFR services are available.
_ 3. What basic information do you need to tell ATC when you want to navigate through their airspace?
To whom you want to speak, who you are, where you are, what you want to do.
_ 4. Name the different ATC areas of operation (e.g. the different controllers you might have to talk to)
Clearance Delivery, Ground Control, ATC, Departure Control, Approach Control, ARTCC
(Center)
_ 5. How do you acknowledge that you received and understood ATC?
By replying with “Roger” + aircraft call sign. Holding instructions, runway assignments,
and take off and landing clearances or other clearances should be read back to the
controller.
_ 6. When must you contact tower if you are operating in Class G or E airspace in the vicinity of an
airport with an operating control tower?
91.126 and 91.127 - Prior to 4 n.m. from the airport and 2,500 ft AGL
_ 7. When must you contact tower on approach to an airport in Class B, C, or D airspace?
91.129; 91.130; 91.131 – Prior to entering their airspace. Initial call up should be made 15
miles from the airport. For helicopters make it about 5 miles 4-3-2
_ 8. What is the frequency for emergencies?
121.5 MHz (243 MHz military)
_ 9. How do you call a Flight Service Station (FSS) while en route?
Use frequencies published either inside the FSS box or on top of VOR information
boxes as Remote Communication Outlets (RCOs) or use the standard frequency 122.2 MHz
To contact an FSS, use the FSS’s name and add the word radio. e.g.” Gainesville Radio”
_ 10. How do you address the FSS to request “EFAS”? 7-1-5
Contact “flight watch” by using the name of the ARTCC facility identification serving the
area of your location, followed by your aircraft identification and the name of the nearest
VOR to your position.
For the Jacksonville ARTCC Jacksonville is the serving center so:
“Jacksonville Flight Watch” helicopter 797SH 3 miles north of Craig VORTAC.
_ 11. What is the procedure if you lost radio communications?
Squawk 7600 (6-4-2) Remain outside the airspace, determine the direction and flow of
traffic. Join the traffic and maintain visual contact with the tower and comply with the light
gun signals. VFR weather minimums must be met. Keep transmitting your intentions. AIM
6-4-1 and 4-2-13
_ 12. Interpret the ATC light signals.
91.125 and 4-3-13
_ 13. What squawk code can you use to alert a ground radar facility of an emergency?
7700 6-2-2 and 6-3-2
_ 14. What should you do in case of an emergency? 6-3-2
Transmit a distress or urgency message on the frequency in use or other frequencies
assigned by ATC or the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz or 243 MHz. Comply and
cooperate with the instructions received. If unable to immediately establish
communications, squawk 7700 and use Mode C.
_ 15. What squawk code should you use if you are being hijacked?
7500 6-3-4
_ 16. What does 7777 squawk mean?
Under no circumstances should a pilot operate the transmitter on Code 7777. This code
is reserved for military interceptor operations.
Ground Operations
_ 17. What does “movement area” vs. “non-movement area” on an airport mean?
Ground and tower have jurisdiction over movement areas to provide vehicle separation
and runway incursions. Pilots must obtain permission to move within these areas. Nonmovement areas do not require permission. But it is advisable to talk to ground anyway to
let them know of your attentions. (common sense)
Define:
_ 18. “Surface Taxi” – 4-3-17 (b)(1)
Primarily for helicopters equipped with wheels or when it’s necessary to keep the effect
of downwash to a minimum.
_ 19. “Hover Taxi” – 4-3-17 (b)(2)
Slow forward movement of the helicopter, stay below 25 ft AGL.
_ 20. “Air Taxi” – 4-3-17 (b)(3)
Movement of the helicopter below 100 ft AGL at an appropriate speed.
_ 21. How do you start, stop, and control a surface taxi?
Hold cyclic slightly forward. Start and stop with the collective, hold ground track with the
cyclic, hold heading with Pedals.
_ 22. Is it ok to overfly other aircraft, vehicles, or people during an air taxi? 4-3-17 (b)(3)
Overflight of other aircraft, vehicles, and personnel should be avoided.
_ 23. Can you cross an active runway with the instruction “taxi to” your assigned runway? 4-3-18 (a)(5)
Yes. However, it does not include authorization to “taxi onto” or “cross” your assigned
runway
Flight Operation
_ 24. Identify all components of a standard traffic pattern. 4-3-2
Departure leg, cross wind leg, downwind leg, base leg, final approach. If parallel to take off
leg, it’s called upwind leg.
_ 25. What is the standard direction of turns in traffic pattern? 4-3-2 (b) – Left for fixed wing, n/a for helo
_ 26. What is considered recommended traffic pattern altitude? 4-3-3
1,000 ft AGL for fixed wing, 500 ft AGL for helicopters
_ 27. How do you make sure you’re flying the proper altitude in the traffic pattern?
Check altimeter before you take off and identify the correct true altitude consisting of
field elevation plus your traffic pattern altitude.
_ 28. How are you generally supposed to enter and exit traffic patterns? 4-3-3
Enter downwind leg in level flight at a 45 angle abeam the midpoint of the runway.
Exit either straight out or with a 45 turn to the right after reaching pattern altitude if in
right hand patterns, left if in left hand patterns.
_ 29. What is special about helicopter procedures in traffic patterns in regards to fixed wing traffic?
91.126 (b)(2) ; 4-3-2 (b)
Helicopters must avoid the flow of fixed wing traffic.
_ 30. How do you make sure to follow all prescribed procedures at unfamiliar airports?
Check the AF/D or the web (e.g AirNav.com), call FSS and/or airport and ask for letters of
agreements for helicopters.
Airport Hazards
_ 31. What is a runway incursion?
“Any occurrence in the airport runway environment involving an aircraft, vehicle,
person, or object on the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a loss of
required separation with an aircraft taking off, intending to take off, landing, or intending to
land.”
_ 32. How can we avoid it?
Be vigilant, read back all instructions, clarify instructions if uncertain, know the signs and
markings, become familiar with the airport.
_ 33. What is wake turbulence? Do helicopters create wake turbulence?
The turbulence created by aircraft when producing lift. As soon as an aircraft takes off, a
trail of wake turbulence is created which is a downward, outward, descending, spiraling
strong turbulence. This can result in a loss of control of your own aircraft, if encountered.
Helicopters produce the same type of wake turbulence, which is shed off at the 9 and 3
o’clock positions of the disk and trails the aircraft.
_ 34. How can we avoid it? 7-3-6
Rotation point = the point at which a fixed wing aircraft lifts its nose to create an a.o.a to
lift off.
In general – If behind other aircraft, stay above their flight path.
If landing behind other aircraft, touch down beyond their touch down point.
If landing behind departing aircraft, land well prior to their rotation point.
If departing behind other aircraft taking off, take off prior to their rotation point and stay
above their flight path.
If departing behind other landing aircraft, take off beyond their touch down point.
Be aware of lingering wake turbulence over the runway in calm or light crosswind
conditions. The upwind trail tends to stay over the runway for a while.
Airport and Heliport Markings
_ 35. Identify all runway and taxiway markings and signs.
Flash card quiz or use AIM 2-3-1 to test
_ 36. Where is the runway threshold and what does it mean? 2-3-3
Runway threshold identifies the beginning of the usable runway and is at the beginning of
the runway unless it is a displaced or relocated threshold.
_ 37. What markings designate a heliport? 2-3-6 (fig. 2-3-23)
The letter “H” in a square box for civil heliports. The letter “H” in a cross and a square
box for hospital heliports. The “H” is orientated to align with intended direction of
approach.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 18: __
Passing if 18 correct
Night Operations
Aircraft Systems
_ 1. What are the requirements for night flights in the R22? POH pg. 2-6
Besides CAMALSFOOT and FLAP; Landing, navigational, instrument panel light, and anticollision lights must be operational. Visual ground reference must be maintained during
flight.
_ 2. How do you test the landing light before flight on the R22?
Pull clutch circuit breaker, engage clutch switch, and turn on the landing light.
Lighting for night flights
_ 3. When do we need to turn on our aircraft lights? When the anti-collision lights? 91.209; 4-3-23
Night Vision
_ 4. How long do your eyes need to adjust to the darkness? How can you help accomplish that? 8-1-6
Full night adaptation takes about 30min. A pigment called “rhodopsin” or “visual
purple” must be produced to have any night vision. Bright white light, bleaches the
rhodopsin out of the rods and make you temporarily blind.
_ 5. If there is bright light during flight, what do you do to not lose your night adeptness entirely?
Since any degree of dark adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a bright light,
a pilot should close one eye when using a light to preserve some degree of night vision.
_ 6. Why do we have a “blind spot” in our vision at night?
The “fovea”, located in the back center of the eye, has the highest concentration of
cones, which are less light-sensitive and used for daylight viewing. The highly lightsensitive rods are located in the surrounding areas. At night, the fovea therefore produces
the so-called blind spot.
_ 7. How do you scan the sky at night? Jeppeson Private Pilot Manual 10-3
Because of the “blind spot” we need to scan the sky at night with off-center viewing,
since only the peripheral vision is capable of sending sufficient signals to the brain.
_ 8. How does your physical condition effect your vision?
Fatigue and low physical fitness causes low oxygen levels which effect vision. Lack of
nutrients like Vitamin A also lowers visual acuity.
_ 9. What is night myopia?
The same as empty field myopia during the day. If trying to view anything in total
darkness, the eyes lack a focus trigger leading to a relaxation point where they don’t really
see anything.
Optical Illusions during night flights
_ 10. What is Autokinesis?
In the dark, a static light will appear to move about when stared at for many seconds.
The disoriented pilot will lose control of the aircraft in an attempt to align it with the light.
_ 11. What is the illusion of false horizon?
Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights
and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground light can create illusions of not being
aligned correctly with the actual horizon. The disoriented pilot will place the aircraft in a
dangerous attitude.
Airport lighting
_ 12. What color are taxiway edge lights? – Blue
_ 13. What color are taxiway center lights? – (If installed) Green
_ 14. What color are runway edge lights? – White, last 2,000 ft amber
_ 15. What color are runway center line lights? – White, last 3,000 ft alternating w / red, last 1,000 ft red
_ 16. How does pilot-controlled airport lighting work? – Keying your microphone within 5 seconds:
7x = high intense lighting. 5x = medium intense lighting. 3x = low intense lighting.
_ 17. What frequency is normally used for that? – CTAF
_ 18. Where can you find the correct one if it isn’t CTAF? – AF/D
_ 19. What colors do rotating beacons display for civil airport, military airports, heliport, and water
airports?
Land airport – white/green
Heliport – white/yellow/green
Water airport – white/yellow
Military airport – dual white quick flashes/green
_ 20. What could an active rotating beacon during daytime mean? 2-1-8 (d)
Operation of the airport beacon during daylight hrs often indicates that the ground
visibility is less than 3sm and/or the ceiling is less than 1,000 ft. Pilots should not rely
solely on the operation of the airport beacon to indicate if WX conditions are IFR or VFR.
At some locations with operating control towers, ATC personnel turn the beacon on or off
when controls are in the tower. At many airports, the airport beacon is turned on by a
photoelectric cell or time clocks and ATC personnel cannot control them.
_ 21. What is a VASI and PAPI? 2-1-2
VASI stands for “Visual Approach Slope Indicator”
PAPI stands for “Precision Approach Path Indicator”
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Subject 19: __
Passing if 4 correct
Landing and Parking
_ 1. What is the standard procedure for all off-airport landings in a helicopter>
To determine if landing area is suitable, pilots should always perform a so-called “high
reconnaissance” followed by a “low reconnaissance” orbit.
Acronym
A – Altitude
W – Wind
O – Obstacles
T – Turbulence
F – Forced Landing zones
E – Entry
E – Exit
L – Landing zone
_ 2. Why do we use a rotor brake during shutdown?
To prevent blade sailing. During spin down, the lack of centrifugal force decreases the
rigidity of the rotor blades and makes them susceptible to flap excessively (blade sailing).
This could lead to a tail boom strike or possible injury to disembarking passengers.
_ 3. What should routinely be done after shutdown of the aircraft?
Post-flight inspection, which should consist of a brief walk around and inspection of
things that might have caught your attention during flight. It should definitely include the
thorough check of all ” Tela Temps”
_ 4. What is your responsibility when you leave the aircraft after parking?
Securing the aircraft (rotor tie downs, etc…)