Psychology 30:
Developmental Psychology
Unit Five
Birth to Two Years Old:
Social and Emotional Development
Copyright © Saskatchewan Ministry of Education
May be reproduced for educational purposes.
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Unit 5
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Unit 5
Unit Five: Birth to Two Years Old: Social
and Emotional Development
Concept Map
The following concept map illustrates the major topics presented in this unit.
Introduction
In Unit Five you will continue to learn about neonatal and infant development. The
previous unit looked at physical and cognitive development. Here we focus on
social and emotional development that is influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic
variables. Such factors as temperament, attachment, personality, culture, and
interactions with others have a significant effect on how we feel and behave.
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Most psychologists agree that while nature (genetic or biological factors) may play a
role, it is life experiences or environmental factors that play the most significant role
in social and emotional development.
Intrinsic refers to factors that are essential in nature,
inherent, and belonging to the body or body systems.
Extrinsic refers to factors that originate outside of a
person.
This unit looks at theories in social and emotional development in infancy from birth
to two years old. You will learn how Bronfenbrenner’s model of the systems of
support explains the contributions to social and emotional competencies in children.
Being able to conduct research, understand research findings, and pursue research
interests is a large part of psychology and understanding human processes
throughout development. In previous units you learned about a variety of research
methods. In this unit you are given opportunity to complete the topical research you
began in the previous unit.
After working through the activities presented in Unit Five, you are asked to respond
to the questions in the assignment.
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Reflecting on the Topic
Can you remember the rapture you experienced when you were told stories as a
young child? Perhaps you remember the bedtime stories read to you by your
parents or grandparents. Or, maybe you enjoyed listening to the stories told by your
brothers and sisters or friends around the dinner table.
Have you had an opportunity to listen to a story told to
you by a First Nations storyteller? First Nations people
often tell stories that are “teachings.” This type of
storyteller must earn the right to tell these stories as the
stories are “gifted” to him/her or, in other words, given to
him/her. Children, especially, are educated through
stories.
Stories presented orally are shared experiences where
the audience hears, sees, and feels the story. Each listener is invited to use his/her
imagination in making relevant those parts that particularly pertain to his/her
personal development.
Try reading the next story out loud. As you do, think about how you discovered the
world around you as a toddler. Consider how you learn and what continues to
fascinate you today.
Anita’s Journey
the bag to look for her new bathing suit.
“Anita, we will change into our bathing suits
in the house. Come now and help me with
these pillows.” Anita feels like a big
elephant going up the stairs carrying her
packsack, her pillow, and her bag with
books in it.
As soon as they have changed,
Daddy carries Anita down to the beach. Oh,
the water is so blue! She has never been to
the beach before. Daddy takes Anita’s
hand as they go to the water’s edge. The
sand is warm and soft under Anita’s feet.
Daddy talks to Anita about the waves, the
shore, the pretty rocks, and shells. Anita
listens carefully. She wants to explore on
her own. She is a big girl.
Finally, Daddy says, “Anita, I am
going to sit right here now and rest a little.
You can explore the beach; do not go too
far and stay away from the big waves.”
Anita runs happily to the edge of the water.
She sees her toes amongst the coloured
pebbles. Maybe my toes are rocks too she
by Brenda Valiaho
Anita and Daddy are on their way to
see Kookum and Mooshum at their cabin.
Anita is a big girl now. She is two years old.
Sitting high up in her car seat, she sees
trees, cows, and fence posts zoom by her
window. She wiggles her legs and strains in
her seat to look up at the big blue sky. The
clouds make her think of the pillows they
packed in the trunk.
Finally, the car slows down and
Daddy says, “We’re here, Anita!”
Kookum and Mooshum come out of the
cabin and chatter and hug Daddy and Anita.
Mooshum picks up Anita, wiggles her nose,
and says, “How’s my little angel?”
Anita giggles and squirms. “not little,
Mooshum! Beach?” They all laugh at Anita
and she wonders why they are taking so
long.
Daddy says they have to unpack the
car first and he gives Anita her very own
packsack from out of the trunk. Anita opens
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thinks. She reaches into the water and sees
movement out of the corner of her eye. A
little green thing swims to the sand and
reveals itself when the water sweeps the
shore. It is blinking! It hops when Anita tries
to touch it. What is it? It jumps back into the
water and swims away. Anita knows that she
can jump. She jumps and jumps and jumps
just like the green thing. But she cannot
swim.
Anita sees a flash of colours and
sparkling wings. Is it a dragonfly? She has
seen one dragonfly in her alphabet book.
The dragonfly lands very softly on a patch of
weeds, little rocks, and broken shells. Its
wings are very beautiful – like angel wings,
she thinks. Well, Mooshum called her an
angel, only when she spreads her arms she
does not see all of the same colours. When
she moves closer, the dragonfly flies off with
a silent flutter of wings. Anita tries to walk
very quietly, too, but when she walks, she
sees things moving in the sand.
Between the pebbles she sees
millions and millions of ants scurrying and
carrying little white bits. Anita squats down
to watch them. Where are they going?
They seem to go in and out of a hole. Anita
decides to dig a hole, too. She runs to get
her shovel and digs and digs but is soon
tired. Holes are for ants she decides.
She hears a sound and looks up to
see where it is coming from – a white bird in
the sky! There are several white birds in the
sky, circling and calling to one another.
Anita becomes hypnotized by their sounds
and flying patterns. She wants them to
come down and play with her, but when she
sings her bird song, they all fly away.
Anita is tired now. She looks out to the
water and sees the waves and the sunlight
sparkling around her. Suddenly, she sees a
sea creature rise up out of the water! Anita
is surprised by her long, blue-black hair and
her long, flowing turquoise gown. Her eyes
are like jewels. The sea creature’s smile
attracts Anita the most. Anita feels very
happy to see the creature smiling at her.
She does not feel afraid when the sea
creature floats to her. Anita sees that the
sea goddess has a little mirror in the palm
of her hand. The mirror looks like a big
diamond-pearl. When she nears Anita, she
turns the mirror so that Anita sees her own
reflection in it. She is amazed to see her
own smile. Anita smiles and smiles with
sheer delight!
Then, she twirls and smiles; she
sings a little song about her adventures at
the beach. And when she looks again, the
sea goddess is gone!
“Anita,” Daddy calls. “Are you hungry?
Let’s go see if lunch is ready. I think that
Kookum and Mooshum have a surprise for
us.”
“Look Daddy” Anita points. “I don’t see
anything, Anita.”. Daddy shakes his head.
As they turn to walk away, Daddy stumbles
on something in the sand.
The little mirror that the sea creature
had in her hand! “Where did this
come from?” says Daddy. Daddy is
puzzled; he picks up the mirror, turns it
around in his hand, and then gives it to
Anita. Anita smiles. Suddenly, Daddy
smiles, too.
How did you form attachments with others as a toddler? How does your smile
identify you?
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Theories of Social and Emotional Development
How do nature and nurture theories explain social and emotional
development?
There have been, and continue to be, many views about the state of childhood. The
impact of hereditary and environmental factors on the social and emotional
development of children continues to be an issue for debate amongst psychologists.
In the early centuries in Europe children were seen as little adults and, in that sense,
were expected to be fully developed beings with pre-determined intelligence and
potential. This supported the nature theory of development.
Over time philosophers, scientists, biologists, and many
other people in a variety of disciplines have argued that
children come into the world as biological beings that must
be taught how to become fully mature. In this sense,
children are seen as totally innocent and molded by
experiences in their environment. The child is seen as
developing from a seedling into a tree that is nurtured and
tended to by others. This supports the nurture theory of
development.
The concept of childhood as a unique and special time in the life of an individual is a
relatively recent development. Some psychologists promote the theory that critical
changes in social and emotional development are linked to biological factors, such
as genetics and physical maturation (nature).
Other psychologists emphasize the importance of one’s environment in social and
emotional development, such as learning social skills, developing empathy for
others, and gaining control over impulsive behaviour (nurture).
Research about all human developmental processes has been conducted in a
variety of disciplines: biology, anthropology, philosophy, chemistry, and psychology.
Over the past few decades we have seen overwhelming advances in genetics,
embryology, and the neurological sciences. Work in the behavioural sciences has
also done much to enlighten us about processes and stages in the development of
behaviour.
Today, most psychologists believe that social and emotional development of human
beings depends on both nature and nurture. Consider the following acorn analogy.
Children come into the world with their own innate and natural
potential that contributes to their own growth. In other words,
the acorn contains the oak tree. Like the acorn, the child has
the ability to grow within his/her environment. Genetic potential
is only reached when environmental factors support and
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encourage development. It is clear today that all human development is as a result
of the interface between biological mechanisms as well as behavioural influences.
Nature and nurture factor into development in each of the domains: physical,
cognitive, social/emotional, and spiritual.
We now know that social and emotional development relies on emotional
expressiveness and understanding, socialization processes, attachments, selfconcept, and personality. Some theorists suggest that early socialization skills and
attachments in infancy serve as the basis of social development throughout a
person’s lifespan.
A number of researchers have come to their conclusions about
human processes through their research with a variety of animal
species. Obviously many experiments cannot be carried out on
human subjects since they involve damage to organisms. Certain
types of animals offered unique advantages in the study of certain
biological and behavioural processes. Today, there are many ethical
guidelines and policies about the use of animals in research.
How do the bonds of attachment affect social and emotional
development?
The neonatal period and infancy are characterized by rapid growth and development.
Attachment is extremely important for infants’ social and emotional development.
Attachment refers to the social and
emotional bond between infant and caregiver
that spans both time and space.
The interaction between a parent and child is two-way. Warm feelings, comfort, and
support are critical in the formation of a strong and durable bond. Some theorists
who have conducted experiments with other living organisms, such as monkeys and
birds, have shown that attachment is an innate need. However, research has also
demonstrated that the type and expression of the attachment relates to cultural
factors, parenting styles, and social patterns within families and communities.
What are the innate behaviours that help to form attachment?
Neonates and infants rely on their parents and primary caregivers for survival:
nourishment, warmth, cleanliness, and security. Researchers have noted innate
behaviours in infants, such as sucking, cuddling, looking, smiling, and crying
behaviours. Caregivers’ responses to these actions and expressions help to form
attachments with their infants. Delivery methods now include a number of bonding
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activities moments after the birth. These include the baby being placed on the
mother’s body, being fed, or the father holding the baby.
Read the following information that charts innate and interactive behaviours that
help infants and parent(s) form positive attachments. Although you will not be
asked to explain these in detail, it is important to be aware of the variety of actions in
attachment forming.
Sucking is related to obtaining nourishment; however, Piaget noted that infants suck
on objects even when they are not hungry. This sucking behaviour appears to be
innate and related to relieving distress. Babies may suck on objects, such as a pacifier
or their thumb. Often, mothers who breastfeed may give access to a breast if their
baby is fussy. The age at which infants are weaned is related to cultural practices.
Cuddling refers to body contact and touch. Early psychologists believed that infants
cuddled with their caregivers for survival and nourishment. Research conducted in the
1950s with infant monkeys, however, showed that cuddling and warmth were related to
the need for security.
Dr. Harry Harlow devised many different experiments with infant monkeys and
attachment. In one particular experiment he created two artificial mothers: one was a
bare wire cylinder with a wooden head, and the other, built the same, was covered in
soft terry cloth. Harlow attached the bottle to the wire structure yet he found that the
monkey preferred the cloth mother. The monkey went to the wire mother for
nourishment and the cloth mother when anxious or before venturing out to explore its
environment. Further studies revealed other qualities, such as rocking, warmth, and
feeding made the cloth mother even more appealing.
Human infants also become attached to parents who are soft and warm, who rock,
feed, and pat or cuddle. This type of attachment means nourishment, care, and
security. Security is necessary in becoming healthy social beings. As we get older,
our safe haven shifts from parents to peers and partners. Security also refers to being
self-secure and self-confident.
Research has shown that for infants, looking serves as a signal to parents.
Experiments conducted in the late 1970s showed that babies usually become
distressed when a parent did not respond when eye contact was made. In one
experiment mothers remained expressionless even when their infants smiled and
anticipated her touch or play. Very quickly the infant turned away from her. On the
other hand, when moms approached their infants smiling and talking in a gentle highpitched voice, their child communicated back with cooing, smiles, and wiggles of their
own.
Once infants are five weeks old, visual stimuli invokes smiling. Researchers have
found that a face (especially a moving one) will elicit a smile more than a voice. Even
a moving mask will encourage a baby to smile. By the time an infant is around three
months old, faces that are familiar to the child will stimulate smiling. Babies’ smiles are
very rewarding and in turn encourage others to smile, too.
It has been found that major causes of babies crying include hunger, cold, and pain.
Parents often learn to distinguish the different types of crying. Babies learn that crying
will often get a response from their caregivers. If parents feed, cuddle, or soothe their
child, the crying usually subsides. Both child and parent learn to interact and
communicate with each other in these emotional situations.
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How does attachment develop in infants?
The attachment process can be divided into several phases.
PHASE ONE
Babies are attracted to other human beings
rather than inanimate environmental
features. They engage in behaviours such
as nestling, gurgling, and smiling which are
directed to others; in this sense, smiling is
referred to as social smiling.
PHASE TWO
Infants can distinguish between familiar
people and unfamiliar people. Social smile
disappears yet infants will allow strangers to
hold them and/or look after them as long as
the care is adequate.
PHASE THREE
PHASE FOUR
Infants begin to develop specific attachments
and want to be close to certain people, such
as the mother. They become stressed when
separated (separation anxiety). They readily
distinguish mother from others, rely on object
permanence in the environment, and usually,
though not always, avoid unfamiliar people.
They may respond to strangers by crying
and/or trying to move away.
Infants become increasingly independent of
the primary caregiver. They form strong
additional bonds with other major caregivers,
such as grandparents, siblings, and as well
as other infants.
There are both short-term and long-term effects when infants, especially those
raised in institutions, are denied the opportunity to develop attachments. This also
occurs in infants who are neglected, abused, and/or traumatized.
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What is temperament and what role does it play in attachment?
Research shows us that human infants, like infant monkeys, vary in temperament.
Temperament, one aspect of personality,
refers to a person’s characteristic emotional
reactivity, moods, and intensity.
Temperament is seen in the way that infants explore their environment, relate to others,
and express their needs. For example infants who are extroverted tend to be active,
assertive, and easygoing.
Babies are said to be “difficult” if they are irritable,
intense, and unpredictable in the first few weeks of
life. On the other hand, “easy” babies are cheerful,
relaxed, and predictable about feeding and sleeping
times.
Both genetic factors, such as physiology, and environmental factors, such as
sensitivity in parenting, affect attachment. Culture also plays a role in parents’
attitudes toward, and behaviour with, their child.
What are some types of attachments infants form with their
primary caregivers?
Experiments conducted by psychologist Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues in 1978
show that babies will respond in one of four ways to a situation that may produce
fear and distress. The measurement tool to assess attachment was called the
strange situation test.
Strange situation test is a procedure conducted as
an experiment for studying attachment in which
mothers leave their children alone with a stranger (to
the child) for several minutes and then return.
Researchers recorded how the child responded to being in the room with the
mother; then, how the child reacted to the stranger’s presence and the mother’s
absence; and, finally, how the child responded when the mother returned.
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The results with middle-class families of European descent indicated four different
categories of responses. About 67% of the babies showed secure attachment; 20%
showed ambivalent attachment; 10% showed resistant attachment; and 5% showed
disoriented attachment.
Researchers found that temperament and personality were directly related to the
attachment style in infants. In addition, infants’ attachments were also affected by
their relationships with adults in general. Caregivers’ level of sensitivity was an
important factor in the pattern of attachment in this test situation.
Later in this unit you will learn how culture plays a major role in the types of
attachments between infants and caregivers, development of social and
interpersonal skills, and emotional expressiveness.
To further apply your learning about attachment, respond to the questions in
Activity A that follows.
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Activity A
Respond to the following questions in the space provided.
(7)
1.
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Identify the attachment phase by the behaviours exhibited in each of
the cases explained. From the list below, place the letter of the correct
attachment phase on the line in front of each situation given.
A.
pre-attachment phase
B.
indiscriminate attachment phase
C.
discriminate attachment phase
D.
multiple attachment phase
a.
____ Little Dennis runs to his older brother when the family
comes to pick him up from day care.
b.
____ Little Dawn easily plays with her cousins (even though
she has not seen them since Christmas) when her
relatives get together for Easter.
c.
____ Little Alphonse gurgles and smiles when someone
comes close to his babyseat and chats with him.
d.
____ Little Alesha does not seem to mind when the new
babysitter holds her.
e.
____ Little Benjamin hides when a stranger at the door is
invited into the living room.
f.
____ Little Jamal likes to gather together with the other
children at the wading pool.
g.
____ Little Melissa stops smiling when she looks away from
her mother to look at the doctor.
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(5)
2.
Write a paragraph indicating one possible short-term effect and one
potential long-term effect that a toddler may exhibit as a result of being
neglected as an infant. Then, discuss one way that this toddler, as an
adult, might learn to develop positive attachments with others.
(8)
3.
In 1978 psychologist Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues measured
attachment in babies using the strange situation test. They arrived at
four different types of attachment styles. Unscramble the words to
indicate a particular style of attachment. Then, describe how this type
of attachment might be expressed.
a.
b.
c.
d.
cseeru
_______________________________________
character:
_______________________________________
tdesideiron
_______________________________________
character:
_______________________________________
aisesttnr
_______________________________________
character:
_______________________________________
bvltaiamne
_______________________________________
character:
_______________________________________
___
(20)
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How does personality development in infancy relate to emotional
competency and social skill development?
As you have learned, some psychologists lean towards the view that personality is
molded through learning and experience or nurturing. They support the idea that
change is gradual and without clear-cut periods. Behaviourists believe that infants
learn to change according to a system of rewards and punishments.
Other psychologists, who believe that children’s development unfolds along with
maturation, see development as occurring in specific stages or distinct steps. Each
stage involves interaction between the infant and many factors within the
environment. Stages must be achieved in a pre-determined order.
How does stage theory explain personality development in infancy?
According to Freud, the relationship of infant to caregiver during specific
physiological changes at certain ages influences personality development, as well
as social and emotional development. His theory places infants
under one year old in the oral stage and infants one to two years old
into the anal stage.
In the previous unit you learned about Piaget’s stage theory of
cognitive development. In this unit you will learn about stage theories
related to personality development. Although stage theorists focus on
different aspects of development they all agree that each person
passes through a series of qualitatively different stages in a fixed order.
Personality is defined as the sum total of
the typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling
that makes each person unique.
Erik Erikson, a German psychologist born in 1902, created a
stage theory of personality development that focused on
patterns of child-rearing as well as infant temperament. He
looked at how personality developed in relation to critical crises
experienced according to certain ages and stages. His theory
was as a result of his own family and school experiences,
observations of childrearing in diverse cultures while on his
travels, as well as his relationships with other people and
involvement in other disciplines. Since we are discussing infancy, or the first two
years of life, in this unit we will concentrate on understanding personality
development explained in the first two stages of Erikson’s model: ages 0-1; 1-2.
According to Erikson’s stage theory, individuals are born with basic social and
emotional capacities and distinctive temperaments. Each individual passes through
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eight psychosocial stages. Movement occurs when a person learns to resolve a
crisis indicative of that stage in a healthy manner. However, if a person adapts in a
negative way he/she will only struggle with that issue later in life. Erikson believed
that the stages were set by nature and, it is within these limits, that nurture impacted
on personality development.
Let’s take a close look at how Erikson’s stage theory explains personality
development in infancy.
Are you someone who trusts others as well as your own judgement
when making decisions? If so Erikson would say that, as a one year
old, you were well cared for in a consistent manner and developed
trust in others as well as yourself. If you have observed someone who
lacks confidence and is often doubtful about his/her abilities, Erikson
would say that, before two years old, this person may have been overly
protected, criticized, or perhaps, not allowed to explore his/her world
and, as a result, became mistrustful.
Consult the chart to fully understand the first two stages of Erikson’s model.
Stages
Crisis
Infancy
age 0 - 1
Trust vs.
Mistrust
Toddler
age 1 - 2
Independence
vs Doubt
Description
Positive outcome
Negative outcome
Since infants
depend on others
for food, warmth,
and affection, they
must learn to
depend on others
for survival.
If infants’ needs are
met consistently and
positively by caregivers,
they learn to trust their
environment in general.
If they do not have
their needs met and
receive little attention,
they learn to mistrust
people and their
environment. They
may also learn to
mistrust themselves.
At the toddler stage
infants learn to
walk, talk, and do
things for themselves. Self-control
and self-confidence
begin to develop at
this stage.
When parents and
caregivers encourage
initiative and give loving
support in difficult
times, the infant learns
to cope with future
situations that require
choice, control, and
independence.
If infants are overprotected or independence is disapproved
of, they learn to doubt
themselves and their
abilities.
Erikson’s theory is made up of eight stages that go from infancy into late adulthood,
age 65 to death. Each stage is characterized by a different psychological crisis
which must be resolved before the individual is able to move on to the next stage.
The stages depend on maturation and age. The coping skills depend on life
experiences with others (nurture), as well as personality (nature).
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How do the influences on personality acquired in infancy have an
affect on adult development?
Recall the discussion of Dr. Harry Harlow’s experiments with infant monkeys in the
section “cuddling” in attachment behaviours. Several of his experiments
demonstrated the long-lasting detrimental effects of poor nurturing and neglect.
Additional research has shown that human infants seem capable of recovering, to
some degree, from early unhealthy or dysfunctional family/living environments.
Most psychologists agree that early childhood is the most formative period in
shaping personality and in establishing social and emotional competencies.
Parents and caregivers play a key role in
encouraging positive social and emotional
development in their children. Good
interpersonal skills, the ability
to give and receive love, and
understanding and expressing
emotions are paramount in creating a
healthy personality, developing self worth,
and contributing to community throughout
one’s lifespan.
Culture
How might each of the levels in Bronfenbrenner’s theory of the
systems of support influence social and emotional development in
infants?
In some families one parent chooses to stay at home to be the primary caregiver of
the children. In this case, infants learn to interact within the microsystem. On the
other hand, two parent career families and single parent career families may rely on
extended family and/or day care and other people in the exosystem and
macrosystems. Rising numbers of children attending day care centres, both infant
care and toddler care, has inspired researchers to examine attachment patterns of
children experiencing a variety of caregiver environments.
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Recall the model of the systems of support
outlined in Unit 2. As each of these systems
impact on prenatal development so, too, are
there opportunities for support in social and
emotional development in infancy. As you
review the graphic and recall Bronfenbrenner’s
theory, consider how infants might receive
support within each of the levels. Culture is
part of the macrosystem surrounding children
and their family.
How does culture relate to social and
emotional development in infancy?
Many cultures differ in their view of childhood and the responsibilities of parents,
extended family, and community in childrearing. Culture has a strong impact on the
formation of attachment, social and emotional skill development, and self concept.
Culture is defined as a recognized set of
behavioural patterns, beliefs, and values that
exist within a distinct group of people and
transmitted from one generation to the next.
Cultures vary in many ways. These include the following:

the style of attachment in early childhood; for example, westernized countries
feature a type of attachment that includes one or two caregivers and their
offspring. In other cultures, multiple caregivers are the norm. Recall the African
proverb that says, “It takes a village to raise a child.”

the accepted and expected behaviour according to norms or rules established by
the group

the acceptable amount of personal space

type of relating between people in a social setting

the degree and style of expressiveness, both verbal
and non-verbal

pace of life

definition of family

childrearing practices
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In addition to family culture, we may also belong to subcultures, such as teen
culture, ethnic culture, and culture based on gender. These subcultures also
influence and shape identity as well as self-concept.
Identity refers to the distinct personality or set of
behavioural or personal traits associated with a particular
individual recognized as a member of a group.
Secure attachments and a positive sense of self are part of the most important
social achievement in infancy. Self concept and cultural identity are also related to
healthy social and emotional development in infancy. Cultures vary in their definition
of self and what it means to be a contributing member. Some cultures, such as those
in Western Europe and North America, tend to promote individualism. Infants are
taught to be independent, distinct, and self-reliant.
Individualistic cultures are those that emphasize
independence of thought and action.
On the other hand, collectivistic cultures, such as First Nations, Southern European,
Latin American, and those in parts of Africa and Asia rely on family and the
immediate neighbourhood community. Infants are taught to be cooperative,
contributing members of the group and supporters of tradition.
Collectivist cultures are those that emphasize the
quality and condition of the people as a whole.
In this sense, culture influences the type of bonds
we make with others, how we raise our children,
and what we believe is valued in relationships with
others.
Examine the chart that follows. It compares selfconcept within individualistic and collectivistic
cultures. In which category do you feel more
comfortable? Or, do you express a combination
of these cultural types as a result of influences
from family of origin and the culture of your
society?
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Individualistic Beliefs
Collectivist Beliefs
 self is separate, a unique individual,
 people belong to extended families or
ingroups; “we” or group orientation
independent, and self-sufficient
 individual takes care of him/herself and
 person takes care of extended family
immediate family
before self
 many flexible group memberships; friends
 emphasis on belonging to a very few
based on shared interests and activities
permanent ingroups which have a strong
influence over the person
 reward for individual achievement and
 reward for contribution to group goals and
initiative; individual decisions encouraged;
individual credit and blame assigned
 high value on autonomy, change, youth,
well-being; co-operation with ingroup
members; group decisions valued; credit
and blame shared
 high value on duty, order, tradition, age,
individual security, equality
group security, status, and hierarchy
Family Dynamics and Self Concept
How do families influence social and emotional competencies in
infancy?
The family is an aspect of the microsystem. As a result it is the infant’s first social
setting and a means to interface with the world around them. Emotions are the first
language that parents and infants communicate with before the infant acquires
speech. Infants use their skills in perception, especially sight, sound, and touch to
understand others, to build relationships, and express themselves.
As a result, parents and caregivers play a significant role in their infants’ social and
emotional development. Positive and sensitive attachment practices on the part of
parents and caregivers can equip the infant to explore their world and develop
relationships with others.
Basic advice, such as the information outlined in the chart on the following page, is
often given to parents and caregivers.
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Develop a secure attachment.
Provide positive gender relationships.






 ensure that both mother and father
interact with baby
 provide opportunity for father to provide
nourishment




provide warmth, care, and support
be sensitive to infant’s signals
respond in a sensitive manner
provide time for interaction and play
be aware of the infant’s environment
arrange environment appropriate to the
child’s age and interests
provide safety, security, and protection
establish a trusting relationship
be accepting of baby’s emotions and
rhythms
interact in a consistent manner
Understand and respect the child’s
temperament.
Select competent caregivers.
 spend time
evaluating day
care or care
outside of home
 assess how
other adults care
for the child
 determine the
safety of a facility
 develop bonds with family, extended
family, and the community
 see that the child is provided stimulating
activities
 be sensitive to the individual
characteristics of each child
 provide extra support when necessary
Adapt to developmental changes.
Be physically and mentally healthy.
 be knowledgeable about how infants
develop
 adapt to the behaviours of the changing
infant
 two year olds’ interests are different than
infants’
 provide more opportunities for safe
exploration and mobility to older children
 healthy social and emotional
development in infants depends on
healthy caregivers
 seek advice from knowledgeable people
when needed
 take pride in and give time to parenting
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In what ways does parenting style affect children?
Many research endeavours, have concentrated on
the relationship between parenting styles and infants
emotional competency and social skills. Parenting
styles vary as do the expressions of attachment and
discipline. Researchers, in general, have discovered
four distinct parenting styles. Parents using any one
of the styles listed below influence both social and
emotional competencies in infants and toddlers.

Democratic – In the democratic style, parents set and enforce rules, allow for
discussion of the rules (older children), show warmth and sensitivity to each
child, respect independence and exploration, negotiate disciplinary actions that
are supportive, focus on child’s concerns and interests.

Permissive – In the permissive style, parents make few demands, use little
discipline, allow children to learn from their own mistakes, are warm and
responsive but do not set rules or standards.

Authoritarian – In the authoritarian style, parents impose rules and expect
obedience without discussion, determine consequences for misbehaviour which
are not negotiable, use a method of communication that is often one-sided.

Rejection/Neglect – In the rejection/neglect style, parents have few demands,
are often unresponsive to needs and/or communication, display unsettled
patterns of behaviour, may exhibit apathy or antisocial behaviours, may have
hurtful ways of interaction, may inhibit the social and emotional development of
their infants/toddlers.
We now know that there are many factors, including the following that relate to
positive social and emotional competencies in children.

certain genetic and biological factors

family dynamics

cultural and subcultural values and practices
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Research has shown that parenting styles may vary from child to child within a
family. A child’s temperament and personality were found to affect the nature and
degree of interactions between parents and their children. For example, an
easygoing, agreeable, and sociable child may elicit greater interaction and warmth
from parents.
We know that the relationships established between parents/caregivers and their
children are the most deciding factor in the development of social skills, emotional
health, and both interpersonal and intrapersonal skills that continue to develop well
into adulthood.
Interpersonal means relating to several
people, e.g., socializing, interacting.
Intrapersonal means within the individual self or
mind, e.g., self-talk, self-knowing, self-care.
Key factors in effective parenting are those listed below.



attention to and respect for each child in the family
a positively structured environment
attention to children that need additional support and care
When it comes to using discipline, it seems that parents and caregivers who enforce
rules consistently with predictable consequences allow their children, in turn, to
make choices and become self-confident adults. On the other hand, children who
are coerced and given little control over their choices may become adults who
continuously measure themselves against others, lack self-confidence, and/or
become too dependent on others.
In Activity B that follows, you are asked to demonstrate your
understanding of attachment and the development of social and
emotional skills in infants by responding to a variety of questions.
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Activity B
Respond to the following questions.
(5)
A.
Multiple Choice: Select the best answer for each of the following and
place a check () beside it.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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An experienced babysitter, upon hearing the sudden cry of a
napping 4 month-old, may ***.
____ a.
continue to watch television
____ b.
cuddle the baby and gently calm his/her fears
____ c.
remove a full bottle from the crib
____ d.
without checking, immediately phone the parents
to come home
A positive way for a newcomer visiting a family to encourage
trust in an infant is to ***.
____ a.
look away when greeting the child
____ b.
smile only if the child smiles first
____ c.
smile upon approaching the child
____ d.
reach out as if to hug the child
In current North American culture fathers ***.
____ a.
are never involved in feeding their newborn
____ b.
often participate in the care and feeding of their
newborn
____ c.
never stay at home to care for their infant
____ d.
do not hold newborns
Sensitive communication and interaction with an infant is
characterized by ***.
____ a.
low pitched and gentle tones in the voice
____ b.
physical contact without eye contact
____ c.
no storytelling or play objects
____ d.
none of the above
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5.
(6)
B.
A mother who is concerned about her infant’s eating and
sleeping habits might consult *** for advice.
____ a.
her family doctor
____ b.
another mother in the community
____ c.
her mother and/or mother-in-law
____ d.
all of the above
Imagine that you are a mother out grocery shopping with your two year
old. As you are paying for the groceries, your two-year-old son
wanders over and climbs into a stationary plastic toy car ride. He
beeps the horn a few times and is very thrilled with the toy car. As you
near the toy car and tell your child it is time to go, he says, “No! No!”
and does not want to let go of the steering wheel.
Identify three appropriate interactions you would make to promote
positive social and emotional development as well as achieve the
result of your child leaving the toy car and willing to go along with you.
Say: ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Do: ____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Show by expression: _______________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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(4)
C.
Select one of the following scenes and list four characteristics
exhibited in the relationship.

Describe the scene of a grandparent with his/her infant grandchild
showing they have formed a close attachment or bond.
OR

Describe the scene of a ten-year old with his/her infant brother or
sister showing they have formed a close attachment or bond.
1.
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
2.
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
3.
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
4.
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
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D.
Read the following newspaper article and respond to the questions
that follow.
Society Must Act on Abuse
by Nadine Meeley
here’s a young woman I know very well.
well. She is a quiet woman who is
detached from our world. She is here, but
but she isn’t, at the same time. Her life is
spent in a cage. She has removed herself
from the human world of love and hate
because of fear. She cringes in the corner
when you try to reach out and comfort her
tears. She is scared of all emotion. Reaching
into her realm is only possible when she
allows you to enter, since the only entrance is
from within.
She suffered from a very
traumatic, all too common, happening in
today’s society. She was abused.
Child abuse happens all too often in
today’s world. And the victims are very often
ignored. They are neglected, left to suffer
and grow up as the next generation of
abusers society has created.
To stop this cycle of abuse, society must
intervene. Society has to make it known to
children that it isn’t OK to be hit, or to be
excessively and brutally yelled at, or to be
ignored. Children don’t know these things. If
they have spent their lives in an abusive
home, they are not going to know that this
isn’t the way things should be. It has to be
pointed out and explained in detail.
First, children must be taught that it isn’t
their fault if they are hit. It is always the
abuser’s fault. The abuser has control over
his or her actions at all times, and they are
always responsible for what they do. They
can’t blame their actions on alcohol, or
drugs, or a bad temper or the child. It is vital
that children know and understand this,
because if they don’t, they will grow up
thinking that they brought this suffering on
themselves, and may end up just like the
young woman discussed above.
There are many different types of abuse.
The most common is physical abuse.
Physical abuse can be anything from a slap
to a brutal beating that leaves the victim
hospitalized.
There is also sexual abuse. Most often
this abuse leaves the victim emotionally
scarred and too afraid to tell someone.
T
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The least heard of, or talked about, abuse
is emotional abuse. Emotional abuse is the
name calling, manipulation and mind games
abusers use to make their victims feel
useless, thereby leaving them under the
abuser’s control.
There is a way out of any abusive
situation, and that is for the child to tell an
adult that they trust. This is something many
children either don’t know about or don’t
listen to. Or if they do, they often don’t apply
it to their own situation.
They are usually afraid to tell someone
because they don’t want to lose mom or dad.
This is a very real fear, but they need to be
reassured that they won’t lose mom and
dad, and that by telling someone, it helps
everybody.
As a society, we have to make children
aware that they aren’t doing anything wrong
by telling someone; that they are doing the
right thing. Children don’t know that their
actions now will affect their well-being forever.
It is up to society to make sure they do know.
Society has to help them understand that
being hurt isn’t a good thing; that it isn’t
supposed to happen.
The long-term effects of abuse on a child
are drastic and devastating. The child usually
grows up with very low self-esteem, making it
less likely they will try to achieve success in
life. They have a fear of people, of getting
close to someone. They don’t trust people,
and if they do, it takes them a very long time
to do so. The situation isn’t hopeless, though.
With counselling, and time, the scars can
fade and they will be able to start living
normal, healthy lives, thereby stopping the
cycle of abuse.
Abuse, of any sort, is very destructive and
hard on the victims. There has to be an
awareness in society that abuse does go on,
everywhere. It is not isolated to one part of
our city or country and it affects everyone in
one way or another.
Source: “Minus 20,”
Leader Post, October 5, 1998
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(2)
1.
Define the term emotional abuse as explained in the Leader
Post article.
(2)
2.
State the advice that is given in this article for finding a way out
of an abusive situation.
(2)
3.
State one reason that children find it hard to tell someone about
the abuse.
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(4)
4.
Identify two ways that society can help as suggested in the
article.
___
(25)
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How does self-concept relate to social and emotional competencies?
The positive social and emotional strategies that parents and families use help
children to develop a positive sense of self, personal worth, and an understanding of
their identity. Children become more confident, self reliant, optimistic, assertive, and
sociable. How and when does an infant develop self-concept? We look to
behaviour to give us the answer. Biologist Charles Darwin, back in the late 1800’s,
had the idea that self awareness began with one’s recognition of his/her own image
in the mirror.
Researchers, much later, demonstrated that infants at six
months old will reach out to their mirror image as if it were
another child. However, at 15 to 18 months old it was found that
infants touched their own noses when they looked into the
mirror and saw that their image had a red rouge spot on their
noses (placed there by the researcher and unbeknownst to
them).
Self-concept seems to develop in infancy some time after one year of age.
Children’s views of themselves affect their actions, behaviours, and interactions with
others. Self-concept gradually develops and changes as a result of life’s
experiences.
Self-concept refers to a sense of
identity and personal worth.
Social and emotional competencies not only involve the development of self-concept,
they also include empathy, social referencing, and self-regulation of emotions.
Empathy refers to the ability to know how somebody
else is feeling, recognize emotions in others,
and experience emotions ourselves.
Researchers have shown that neonates show distress in
response to the sound of another infant crying. By eighteen
months old, infants will try to relieve a person who is upset by
touching, patting, or showing them kindness. At two years old,
the toddler will offer a toy or may even get help to comfort the
distressed person.
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Social referencing refers to awareness of
the reactions of others to evaluate how to
respond in uncertain situations.
Infants are able to comprehend the emotional expressions of others especially
through face-to-face interactions. Facial expressions and a display of emotions are
cues to infants indicating what other people desire and how they might react. For
example, a one year old who falls may look to his/her caregiver’s reactions to see if
he/she should cry.
Self regulation of emotions involves the
ability to use a range of strategies to express
and understand one’s feelings.
Before the age of two, infants have very little capacity to regulate
their own emotional reactions and to express these to others.
They are egocentric in that they see the world through their own
needs and desires. Self regulation of emotions and impulses
develops as one matures. For example, a two year old may cry
very suddenly in response to hearing a frightening sound on
television and throw a truck at the screen.
On the other hand, a four year old may cover his eyes and ears when watching a
particularly frightening part in a movie. By ten years old, children are quite adept at
expressing their feelings, sharing their emotions verbally and nonverbally, and
perhaps regulating others’ emotions. A ten year old might turn off the television
while verbally comforting his little sister who is crying.
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Does birth order make a difference in how infants develop social
and emotional skills?
In the early 1900s psychologist Alfred Adler outlined a theory of
social and emotional development that centred on birth order.
The main tenet of his school of thought is the necessity of
looking at the individual as a whole, as a functioning entity,
reacting to his environment as well as to his physical makeup.
For infants and toddlers the environment centres on family and
their place and experience within it. Alder noted the following.
Position
Family Situation
Child’s Characteristics
Only
Birth is a miracle. Parents have no
previous experience. Retains 100
percent attention of both parents.
May become rival of one parent.
Can be overprotected and spoiled.
Likes being the centre of adult
attention. Often has difficulty sharing
with peers. Prefers adult company
and uses adult language. Is self
reliant and confident.
Oldest
Dethroned by next child. Has to
learn to share. Parent expectations
are usually very high. Often given
responsibility and expected to set
example.
May become authoritarian or strict.
Feels power is his right. Can become
helpful if encouraged. May turn to
father after birth of next child.
Becomes an achiever.
Second
There is always someone ahead.
Someone has already set the pace.
Gives a sense of security.
Is more competitive, wants to
overtake older child. May become a
rebel or try to outdo everyone.
Competition can deteriorate into
rivalry. May enjoy challenges.
Middle
Is “sandwiched” in. May feel
squeezed out of a position of
privilege and significance.
May be even-tempered, “take it or
leave it” attitude. May have trouble
finding a place or become a fighter of
injustice. May feel free to pursue
interests.
Has many mothers and fathers.
Older children try to educate her.
Never dethroned.
Wants to be bigger than the others.
May have huge plans that never work
out. Can stay the “baby.” Frequently
spoiled. Enjoys socializing.
One is usually stronger or more
active. Parents may see one as the
older.
Can have identity problems. Stronger
one may become the leader. Have a
close bond with each other.
Youngest
Twin
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Although Adler’s theory adds another dimension to understanding personality and
the development of social and emotional competency, he would agree that there are
many factors including the following to consider.

The psychological situation of each child in the family is different.

The child’s self-concept and his/her perception of those around him/her may
determine choice of attitude.

If more than three years between children, a subgroup of birth order might form.

A child’s birth order position may be seized by another child if circumstances
permit. This may happen in blended families.

Competition may be expressed in choice of interests or development of
characteristics.
Birth order is sometimes not a major
influence on personality development. As
we have seen, other significant influences
are: parental attitudes, social experiences,
economic conditions, and gender roles.
Adler speculated that birth order differences
would begin to disappear if families became
less competitive and autocratic, and more
cooperative and democratic. In addition,
cultural influences also play a role in the
responsibilities related to birth order and
gender.
Importance of Play
What is the role of play in social and emotional development in
infancy?
Children’s play takes place in a variety of environments and
settings within the systems: macrosystem, exosystem, and
microsystem. Play is one of the most important activities of
childhood. Children play for fun and pleasure. Play provides an
opportunity for them to explore the world they live in, practise
social skills, and use cognitive skills. Play is essential to a young
child’s social and emotional health.
Developmental psychologists agree on the importance of play in early childhood for
a variety of reasons. Freud and Erikson believed that play was essential in helping a
child to adjust to experiences and master anxieties and conflicts. Because tensions
are relieved in play, the child can cope with life’s problems. Piaget believed that
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play exercises children’s cognitive development. He saw play as a way for children
to practise their competencies and learn skills in a relaxed, pleasurable way.
Vygotsky also believed that play was very beneficial to cognitive development,
especially the symbolic and make-believe aspects of play. For example, a child
might substitute a stick for a horse and ride the stick as a horse. Putting imagination
into life experience further helps the child to make learning relevant and to transfer
and apply learning from one situation to another.
Daniel Berlyne, a respected researcher and founder of modern
experimental aesthetics, described play as being exciting and
pleasurable because it satisfies the exploratory drive in each of
us. This drive involves curiosity and a desire for information about
something new or unusual. Play encourages this exploratory
behaviour by offering children the possibilities of novelty,
complexity, uncertainty, surprise, and change.
Initially, psychologists theorized that play in infancy was important in
the development of social skills. We rely on Mildred Parten’s
research findings to explain categories of social play and level of
interaction with others.

Unoccupied play occurs when the child is not engaging in play as it is
commonly understood. The child may stand on one spot, look around the
room, or perform random movements that do not seem to have a goal.

Solitary play occurs when the child plays alone and independently of others.
Two and three year olds engage more frequently in solitary play than older
preschoolers do.

Onlooker play occurs when the child watches other children play. The child’s
active interest in other children’s play distinguishes onlooker play from
unoccupied play.

Parallel play occurs when the child plays separately from others, but with toys
like those others are using or in a manner that mimics their play.

Associative play occurs when play involves social interaction with little or no
organization. In this type of play children seem to be more interested in each
other than in the tasks they are performing.

Cooperative play involves social interaction in a group with a sense of group
identity and organized activity. Little cooperative play is seen in the preschool
years where children are egocentric and learning about themselves.
Contemporary perspectives of play emphasize both social and cognitive
development. The following categories of play outline a variety of cognitive skills
developed in infancy.
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Sensorimotor play is behaviour engaged in by infants to derive pleasure
from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas. Infants initially
engage in exploratory and playful visual and motor transactions in the
second quarter of the first year of life. By nine months, infants begin to
choose novel objects for exploration and play, especially objects that are
responsive, such as toys that make noise or bounce. By 12 months,
infants enjoy making things work and exploring cause and effect. At this
point in development, children like toys that perform when they act on
them.
Pretense/Symbolic play occurs between 9 and 30 months of age when
children increase their use of objects in symbolic play. They learn to
transform objects, substituting them for other objects and acting toward
them as if they were these objects. Dramatic play or “make-believe” often
appears at about 18 months and reaches a peak at about four or five
years old, then gradually declines. In the second year, infants begin to
understand the social meaning of objects. For example, two year olds
may distinguish between exploratory play that is interesting but not
humourous, and “playful” play which has incongruous and humorous
dimensions.
Social play is play that involves social interactions with peers. Parten’s
categories are oriented towards social play.
Constructive play combines sensorimotor/practice repetitive play with
symbolic representation of ideas. Constructive play occurs when children
engage in self-regulated creation and construction of a product or a
problem solution.
Structuring the infant’s environment with respect to creativity and providing
opportunities for interactive play are very important in nurturing social, emotional,
and cognitive development. Parents and caregivers who foster curiosity,
exploration, and imagination in their infants establish patterns of behaviour and
thought that will continue on into adulthood.
In Activity C you are invited to reflect on your understandings of and
experiences related to social and emotional development and the importance
of play as you respond to questions in your journal, Highlights of Experience
that follows.
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Activity C
Answer the following questions by reflecting on your experiences, your thoughts,
and your self-knowledge. Write detailed answers in complete sentences. These
questions are intended to give you a better understanding of social and emotional
development in infancy.
Marking Scale
Points
No entries.
0
Inadequate entries. Ideas are not clear; some
questions are missed or responses are too
short.
1-5
Ideas are limited and over generalized.
Understanding of the concepts/topics is limited.
6 - 10
Ideas are straightforward and clearly stated.
Insight and self-reflection on the concepts/
topics are evident. Responses are detailed and
show some enthusiasm for the learning.
11 - 15
Ideas are well constructed and explained clearly
giving additional information. Responses show
that learning is evident and connections are made
with other concepts/ topics. The vocabulary shows
that the definitions of the concepts/terms are
understood. Learning has also been applied to
experience.
16 - 20
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Highlights of Experience: What do you think?
Talk to someone who might have known you as a young child or write what you can
remember.
1.
What was your personality like as a child? How is your personality the same
today? Different?
2.
What is your position in your family of birth? oldest? youngest? Refer to
Adler’s description of birth order and their characteristics. Discuss how your
characteristics might or might not compare with those described by Adler.
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3.
Think back to the play you engaged in as a small child. What type of play did
you most enjoy? Explain.
4.
What were your responsibilities in your family as you were growing up? Who
did you admire the most in your family? Why?
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5.
Think about your family of origin and your ethnic culture. For example, where
did your great grandparents come from? How does your family express their
ethnic culture? How do you express your ethnic culture? Briefly explain how
your ethnic culture contributes to your personality.
6.
In what ways are you similar to your siblings and family members? In what
ways are you different from your siblings and family members? Explain and
give examples to support your opinion.
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7.
What is your opinion of childhood? What metaphor would you use that
relates to the stage of childhood? Explain and give examples to support your
opinion.
8.
Describe the parenting style that you will use if or when you become a parent.
Explain why you think that style is effective.
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9.
What role do you think day care centres play in our society? What would you
look for in evaluating a day care centre?
10.
Look at a baby picture of yourself or, if you do not have one, find a picture of
a baby in a magazine. What strikes you most about the expression in the
face? What does the expression say about character and personality?
___
(20)
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Topical Research
Recall the topical research started in the previous unit. By now you should have
accomplished the following tasks.

Selected your topic.

Constructed questions related to your topic of interest.

Created a folder containing copies of articles with information
that respond to your questions.

Described two real-life findings that will also help to answer your
questions.
Be prepared to complete and share your topical research in the Frequently Asked
Questions format in the assignment section that follows.
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Looking Back: What do you recall about the concepts presented in
the unit? Review the concept map.
As you work through the assignment that follows you may need to re-read those
topics that require clarification or review. Combine the unit information with your
own experiences as you answer the assignment questions. This will make your
learning more relevant and useful.
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