Starship Children’s Health Clinical Guideline
Note:
The electronic version of this guideline is the version currently in use. Any printed version can
not be assumed to be current. Please remember to read our disclaimer.
PNEUMONIA
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Introduction
Clinical features
Causative Organisms
Investigations
Treatment
Admission
Follow-up
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Recurrent pneumonia or persistent
symptoms
Complications
Prevention: Environment & underlying
conditions
References
Introduction
These guidelines may not be appropriate for the immunocompromised child or a child with chronic
lung disease (e.g. cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis, neonatal chronic lung disease).
Pneumonia, bronchiolitis and asthma are all common illnesses that result in children presenting
with acute lower respiratory symptoms and signs. Antibiotics should be given to children with
bacterial pneumonia but not to children with bronchiolitis or asthma.
The New Zealand population has high rates of pneumonia, complicated pneumonia and long term
sequelae (eg bronchiectasis). Pneumonia is more common and more severe in younger children.
In Auckland the hospitalisation rate of those < 2 years is 11 times higher than those aged ≥ 4.
Clinical Features
Most children with pneumonia present with cough or difficulty breathing, but only the minority of
children with these symptoms have pneumonia. Bacterial pneumonia should be considered in
children <3 years of age who present with fever > 38.5, chest recession and increased respiratory
rate >50 breaths/minute. Older children with bacterial pneumonia often present with difficultly
breathing in combination with tachypnoea. If wheeze is present in a preschool child, primary
bacterial pneumonia is unlikely however in school age children it may suggest Mycoplasma
pneumoniae (see below).
Tachypnoea is a key clinical sign
Tachypnoea by age (World Health Organisation)
< 2 months age
> 60 breaths per minute
2- 12 months age
> 50 breaths per minute
12 months to 5 years age
> 40 breaths per minute
If chest indrawing, nasal flaring, grunting or crepitations are also present then the probability of
pneumonia is increased further. Atypical presentations without obvious respiratory symptoms are
not rare (abdominal pain and vomiting mimicking an acute abdomen, meningism mimicking
meningitis).
Author:
Editor:
Drs Best, Brabyn, Shepherd & Twiss
Dr Raewyn Gavin
Services:
Date Reviewed:
Pneumonia
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Starship Children’s Health Clinical Guideline
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PNEUMONIA
Causative Organisms
In developed countries the aetiology of community acquired pneumonia has been defined by the
child’s age as well as the severity of the episode of illness. Likely causative organisms by age
group are shown in Table 1. Mycoplasma pneumoniae should be suspected in school age
children especially if the onset of symptoms is insidious and/or the child has wheeze, headache or
arthralgia. Cold agglutinins and serial mycoplasma serology may be helpful in confirming
mycoplasma but seldom influence management decisions so aren’t routinely recommended.
Table 1: Aetiology of Pneumonia by Age Group in Developed Countries*
Age group
0 to 1 months
Predominant organisms**
Group B streptococcus
Gram negative organisms
Chlamydia trachomatis
Listeria monocytogenes
1 to 24
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and other viruses †
Streptococcus pneumoniae
months
Haemophilus influenzae (non typeable)
Bordetella pertussis
2 to 5 years
Respiratory syncytial viruses (RSV)
and other viruses †
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Haemophilus influenzae (non typeable)
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
6 to 18 years
Chlamydia pneumoniae
Streptococcus pneumoniae accounts for up to 30%
Respiratory viruses account for < 15% of episodes
* The proportion of pneumonia due to bacteria increases with age and within each age group
likelihood of bacterial infection increases with increasing severity.
†
Other respiratory viruses = Influenza A and B, parainfluenzae 1-3 , adenoviruses, human
metapneumovirus, human coronavirus. Mixed bacterial and viral infection can occur in up to 40%.
** Staphylococcus aureus is an important pathogen of serious pneumonia to remember in
all age groups
Investigations
Many children with pneumonia may be diagnosed and managed on clinical grounds alone.
Radiology does not reliably distinguish bacterial from viral pneumonia so does not determine the
need for antibiotics. A chest x-ray may be indicated if:
• Presentation is atypical
• There is diagnostic uncertainty
• Infants <3 months of age
• Child who is severely unwell
• Child has a history suggesting underlying respiratory disease
• Complications (such as effusion) are suspected (based on clinical signs or not making
anticipated clinical progress).
Author:
Editor:
Drs Best, Brabyn, Shepherd & Twiss
Dr Raewyn Gavin
Services:
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PNEUMONIA
Sputum, throat swabs and NPA for bacterial cultures do not help determine who should receive
antibiotics. An NPA may be indicated for cohorting patients being admitted, for diagnosis of
suspected viral pneumonia (< 2years) and deciding who may benefit from antiviral medication such
as oseltamavir.
A blood culture is an insensitive test for bacterial pneumonia in children however blood cultures
should be considered in the unwell child with pneumonia, especially the child suspected of having
Staphylococcus aureus or complicated pneumonia. Fever magnitude, full blood count findings or
CRP do not reliably differentiate viral from bacterial pneumonia.
Treatment
Children suspected with bacterial pneumonia should be treated with antibiotics. Antibiotics do not
prevent pneumonia in children with upper respiratory tract infections. In contrast to pneumococcal
meningitis, respiratory infections with pneumococci with reduced susceptibility to penicillin have not
been shown to have worse outcomes and decreased susceptibility can be overcome with the use
of high oral or IV dosing of penicillin.
1. Oral Antibiotics
Oral antibiotics will provide adequate coverage for most mild to moderate episodes of pneumonia.
This may include some of those requiring admission. There is no role for outpatient oral antibiotic
therapy for infants < 3 months of age with pneumonia.
Age
3 months to 5 years
Antibiotic
Dose
Duration
High dose amoxycillin
30 mg/kg/dose TDS*,
5-7 days
maximum 500mg/dose
≥ 5 years
High dose amoxycillin
30 mg/kg/dose TDS*
5-7 days
Maximum 1000mg/dose
≥ 5 years, Mycoplasma
pneumonia suspected
Erythromycin,
12.5mg/kg/dose QID
7-10 days
OR, Roxithromycin
4mg/kg, BD
(tablets only)
* Oral amoxycillin dose has been increased from previous guidelines in view of increased
pneumococcal resistance (consistent with international best practice).
Author:
Editor:
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Dr Raewyn Gavin
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2. Parenteral antibiotics
Should only be used for those requiring admission (see below)
A) Pneumonia Not Likely To Be Staphylococcal
Suggested empirical IV therapy for inpatients with uncomplicated pneumonia (no suspicion of
staphylococcal disease, no lung abscess nor pleural effusions) is:
Age
Less than 3 months
≥ 3 months
(fully immunisediv)
Antibiotic
Dose
Interval
(hrs)
Cefotaxime +
50 mg/kg/dose
8i
Amoxycillin
50 mg/kg/dose
6ii
30- 50 mg /kg/dose
8
Amoxycillin
(maximum 2000 mg / dose)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
In term babies < 7 days old, reduce to 12 hourly
In term babies < 7 days old, reduce to 8 hourly
In a child > 5 years, if suspicion of mycoplasma consider addition of an oral macrolide
Unimmunised children should be treated according to the complicated pneumonia
recommendations below.
Duration of therapy is determined by clinical response. Intravenous therapy should be used until
the child is afebrile and, in the case of severe pneumonia, for several days after this.
Total duration of therapy is usually 7 -10 days.
Monitor pulse rate, respiratory rate, temperature, and oxygen saturation.
B) Complicated pneumonia
< 3 months
Cefotaxime and amoxycillin
as above
Amoxycillin + Clavulanic
acid*
OR
≥3 months
30mg/kg/dose
(max 1.2g/dose
q6h)
6-8 hourly
8 hourly
Cefuroxime*
30mg/kg/dose
(max 1.5g/dose)
* Following intravenous treatment options for oral antibiotics include amoxycillin-clavulanic acid
syrup/tablets or cephalexin syrup/tablets
Author:
Editor:
Drs Best, Brabyn, Shepherd & Twiss
Dr Raewyn Gavin
Services:
Date Reviewed:
Pneumonia
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C) Probable Staphylococcal Pneumonia
Staphylococcal pneumonia is classically associated with lung abscess and empyema. Consider it
in any child who is very unwell, has abscesses or metastatic infection or has developed pneumonia
as a consequence of chicken pox, influenza or measles. Diagnosis should be confirmed by blood
culture and/or aspirate. Staphylococcal pneumonia is a medical emergency – if you suspect it, you
must discuss the child with your consultant.
Appropriate initial IV antibiotics for probable S.aureus pneumonia are:
Flucloxacillin
+/Clindamycin*
50mg/kg
6 hourly
(max 2000mg/dose)
10mg/kg
6-8 hourly
(max 450mg/dose)
*Addition of clindamycin should be based on local methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus rate
where >10% is suggestive of need to add anti-MRSa drug. *ID approval is required for use of
Clindamycin >48 hours
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Multi-resistant-S.aureus remains uncommon as a cause of pneumonia, so Vancomycin is
rarely required as empiric treatment.
Antibiotic choice should be rationalised once culture results available.
Admission
Indications for admission include any of the following:
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Ill or toxic appearance.
Age < 3 months.
Hypoxaemia: oxygen saturation less than 93% on air
Respiratory distress interfering significantly with feeding.
Significant dehydration.
Complicated pneumonia.
Deterioration despite appropriate oral antibiotics.
Significant co-morbidity
Social concerns: no car, no phone, language or communication barrier
Follow up
Most children with pneumonia respond to quickly to treatment and make uneventful, full recoveries.
Resolution of cough is expected in 4-6 weeks and when this does not occur the family should see
their General Practitioner for further follow up and consideration of referral to General Paediatric
outpatient clinic. A follow up chest x-ray is not routinely required but may be indicated in those with
complicated pneumonia – see below, (including significant atelectasis / collapse) or chronic /
recurrent symptoms.
Author:
Editor:
Drs Best, Brabyn, Shepherd & Twiss
Dr Raewyn Gavin
Services:
Date Reviewed:
Pneumonia
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Children with recurrent pneumonia or persistent symptoms
A history of recurrent pneumonia or chronic cough / respiratory symptoms should be sought at
admission. This may be a sign of underlying vulnerabilities, chronic lung disease or environmental
factors (see table below). History & clinical examination is the best starting point to investigate
further.
See Starship Guideline on ‘COUGH - investigation of chronic cough &/or confirmed bronchiectasis’
The child with recurrent pneumonia or persistent symptoms needs referral to General Paediatric
outpatient clinic with further investigations arranged. It may be appropriate to discuss this referral
prior to discharge from CED.
Pneumonia Complications
Health professionals caring for children with pneumonia should be aware of the range of potential
complications, how to recognise them and their management. The following serves to highlight
these complications but is not intended as a full list nor a comprehensive guide to their
management.
(a) Syndrome of inappropriate anti-diuretic hormone (SIADH): Inappropriate secretion of
anti-diuretic hormone leads to retention of water and hyponatraemia. This is recognised
frequently in paediatric respiratory illness. Most children should be managed with ¾
maintenance (see Intravenous Fluids guideline). Consider symptomatic hyponatraemia if
there is irritability, an altered level of consciousness. Initial test is serum electrolytes. Seek
expert advice on management.
(b) Lung necrosis: Necrosis and liquefaction of lung tissue. Suspicion may be raised by poor
response to treatment, including persisting fever. Definitive diagnosis requires contrast
chest CT (see expert advice before requesting this). Additional therapy or surgical
intervention is not necessarily required and outcome with conservative management in
childhood is usually good. Careful follow up is required as long term sequelae may follow.
(c) Pneumatocoele: These are thin-walled air-filled cysts that develop within the parenchyma.
They are particularly associated with Staphylococcus aureus and will usually resolve over
time without specific intervention. Careful follow up is recommended to ensure full recovery
and resolution. Family should be notified that it may be unsafe for the child to fly while the
pneumatocoele(s) are present.
(d) Atelectasis / Lobar collapse: This is not uncommon. Chest physiotherapy (airway
clearance techniques) may be indicated. Follow up should be arranged to ensure resolution
as may be associated with long term sequelae. Children with persistent lobar collapse
should be referred to a respiratory paediatrician for review and potentially a flexible
bronchoscopy.
Author:
Editor:
Drs Best, Brabyn, Shepherd & Twiss
Dr Raewyn Gavin
Services:
Date Reviewed:
Pneumonia
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Starship Children’s Health Clinical Guideline
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not be assumed to be current. Please remember to read our disclaimer.
PNEUMONIA
(e) Parapneumonic effusion / empyema: All children with pneumonia whose fever doesn’t
settle on appropriate antibiotic therapy within 48hrs should be screened for a pleural
collection (examination and chest x-ray). Children with parapneumonic effusions /
empyema should be admitted on intravenous antibiotics (see complicated pneumonia
above) to cover the likely organisms (Streptococcal species and Staphylococcus aureus
but tuberculosis should be considered). Baseline full blood count, inflammatory markers
and blood cultures are recommended. If the child is significantly compromised (high work
of breathing, hypoxia, and/or persistent signs of sepsis), aren't making expected progress,
or the effusion is very large, then additional intervention should be considered. This will
usually be video-assisted thorascopic surgery (VATS) with a chest drain or a chest drain
with fibrinolytic therapy. Both of these interventions result in more rapid recovery than a
chest drain or antibiotics alone. A chest ultrasound is useful pre-intervention to confirm,
quantify and characterise the effusion. Routine thoracocentesis or chest CT are not
recommended. If you aren't familiar with empyema management, seek expert advise.
(f) Lung abscess: The symptoms and signs of lung abscess are the same as for pneumonia
and they may be difficult to distinguish on clinical grounds alone. Diagnosis is usually made
by chest x-ray supported by contrast CT chest. The presence of underlying lung disease or
malformation, foreign body, aspiration, or immunodeficiency should be carefully considered.
Blood cultures, full blood count and inflammatory markers should be obtained at diagnosis.
Therapy is a prolonged course of antibiotics, usually a minimum of 4 weeks. Management
of lung abscess should be guided by a respiratory paediatrician.
(g) Chronic bronchitis / bronchiectasis (sequelae): Children with persistent symptoms
and/or signs including chronic productive cough, persistent crackles, clubbing and/or x-ray
findings should be evaluated further for possible underlying bronchitis/bronchiectasis.
See Starship Guideline on ‘COUGH - investigation of chronic cough &/or confirmed
bronchiectasis’
Prevention: Environment and underlying conditions
associated with pneumonia
Environmental factors
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tobacco smoke exposure
poor nutrition
poor housing
over-crowding
lack of immunisation
Underlying conditions
• chronic lung diseases (chronic bronchitis /
bronchiectasis)
• cystic fibrosis
• primary immunodeficiency
• chronic aspiration
• congenital lung malformation
• airway malformation
Author:
Editor:
Drs Best, Brabyn, Shepherd & Twiss
Dr Raewyn Gavin
Services:
Date Reviewed:
Pneumonia
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Starship Children’s Health Clinical Guideline
Note:
The electronic version of this guideline is the version currently in use. Any printed version can
not be assumed to be current. Please remember to read our disclaimer.
PNEUMONIA
References
Guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia. British Thoracic Society
Standards of Care Committee. Thorax 2002;57(Suppl I):1-24. http://www.britthoracic.org.uk/Portals/0/Clinical%20Information/Pneumonia/Guidelines/paediatriccap.pdf
Craig JC, Williams GJ, Jones M et al. The accuracy of clinical symptoms and signs for the
diagnosis of serious bacterial infection in young febrile children: prospective cohort study of 15781
febrile illnesses. BMJ 2010;340:c1594.
WHO. The management of acute respiratory infections in children. Practical guidelines for
outpatient care. World Health Organization 1995;Geneva:14-35.
Margolis P, Gadomski A. Does this infant have pneumonia? JAMA 1998; 279(4):308-13.
Grant CC, Scragg R, Tan D, Pati A, Aickin R, Yee RL. Hospitalisation for pneumonia in children in
Auckland, New Zealand. J Paediatr Child Health 1998;34(4):355-9.
Kabra SK, Lodha R, Pandey RM. Antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia in children.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;3:CD004874.
McCracken GH Jr. Etiology and treatment of pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19(4):373-7.
Hale KA, Isaacs D. Antibiotics in childhood pneumonia. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2006;7(2):145-51.
Tan TQ, Mason EO Jr, Wald ER et al. Clinical characteristics of children with complicated
pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Pediatrics 2002;110:1-6.
http://www.surv.esr.cri.nz/PDF_surveillance/Antimicrobial/MRSA/aMRSA_
Author:
Editor:
Drs Best, Brabyn, Shepherd & Twiss
Dr Raewyn Gavin
Services:
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