Chapter 11
advertisement
Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span - development - the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 439-443) - Prenatal development proceeds through the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages as the zygote is differentiated into a human organism. The embryonic stage is a period of great vulnerability, as most physiological structures are being formed - Maternal malnutrition during the prenatal period has been linked to birth complication and other subsequent problems. Maternal drug use can be very dangerous, although the risks depend on the drug used, the dose, and the phase of prenatal development. - Fetal alcohol syndrome is a collection of congenital problems caused by a motherʼs excessive alcohol use during pregnancy. a variety of maternal illnesses can interfere with prenatal development. - Genital herpes and AIDS can be transmitted to offspring during the birth process. Many problems can be avoided if expectant mothers have access to good health care. Progress before Birth: Prenatal Development - development begins with conception - occurs when fertilization creates a zygote - a one-celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and egg - prenatal period - extends from conception to birth, usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy - development is rapid The Course of Prenatal Development - divided into three phases: (1) the germinal stage (first two weeks) (2) the embryonic stage (two weeks to two months) (3) the fetal stage (two months to birth) GERMINAL STAGE - germinal stage - the first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception - begins with fertilization leading to a zygote - within 36 hours - rapid cell division begins - microscopic mass of cells migrates along motherʼs fallopian tube to the uterine cavity - ~seventh day - implantation in uterine wall - many zygotes are rejected at this point -> 1/5 pregnancies end with the woman never being aware that conception occurred - during implantation, placenta begins to form - placenta - a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the motherʼs bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother. - across thin membranes that block the passage of blood cells - fetal and maternal bloodstreams separate. Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span EMBRYONIC STAGE - embryonic stage - the second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month. - most of the viral organs and bodily systems begin to form in the developing organism now called an embryo - heart, spine, brain emerge gradually - embryo already beginning to look human - period of great vulnerability because virtually al the basic physiological structures are being formed - Most miscarriages occur during this period - Most major structural birth defects are also due to problems that occur during this stage FETAL STAGE - fetal stage - the third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth - first two months - rapid bodily growth, muscles, and bones begin to form - developing organism now called a fetus - capable of physical movements as skeletal structure hardens - organs continue to grow and begin to function - sex organs start to develop during the third month - final three months - brain cells multiply quickly, layer of fat deposited under the skin to provide insulation and the respiratory and digestive systems mature. - between 22 weeks and 26 weeks the fetus reaches the age of viability - the age at which a baby can survive in the event of a premature birth Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development - external environment can affect fetus indirectly through the mother - motherʼs eating habits, drug use, and physical health among other things, can affect prenatal development and have long-term health consequences MATERNAL NUTRITION - too much or too little weight gain during gestation is associated with a variety of birth complications - should follow Canadaʼs Food Guide to Healthy Eating and maintain a relatively active lifestyle - fetus requires a variety of essential nutrients - severe malnutrition major problem in underdeveloped nations here food shortages are common - recent research suggests that prenatal malnutrition may have negative effects decades after a childʼs birth - prenatal malnutrition has been linked to vulneravility to schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders in adolescence and early adulthood - low birth weight is associated with an increased risk of heart disease and diabetes in middle adulthood Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span MATERNAL DRUG USE - most drugs consumed by a pregnant woman can pass through the membranes of the placenta - virtually all “recreational” drugs can be harmful, with sedative, narcotics, and cocaine being particularly dangerous - problems can also be caused by a great variety of drugs prescribed and even over the counter drugs - effect on fetus depends on drug, dose and phase of prenatal development - fetal alcohol syndrome - a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy - typical problems include - microcephaly (small head), heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, and delayed mental and motor development - one of the leading causes of mental retardation and is related to an increased incidence of depression, suicide, and criminal behaviour in adulthood - even normal social drinking during pregnancy can lead to deficits in IQ, reaction time, motor skills, attention span, and math skills, and increased impulsive, antisocial, and delinquent behaviour - Tobacco use - reduce flow of oxygen and nutrients to fetus - increase risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, prematurity, and other birthc complications MATERNAL ILLNESS - fetus defenceless against infections because immune system matures relatively late - placenta screens out quite a number of infectious agents - maternal illness can interdere with prenatal development - severity of damage depends on when mother contracts the illness - Genital herpes and AIDS - mother can transmit to offspring - improved antiviral drugs can reduce percentage of women who pass the virus for AIDS to their babies - many prenatal dangers are preventable if pregnant women recieve adequate care and guidance from health professionals KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 444-447) - Motor development follows cephaliocaudal (head-to-foot) and proximodistal (centreoutward) trends and depends in part on physical growth, which appears to be more uneven than preciously appreciated. - Early motor development depends on both maturation and learning. Developmental norms for motor skills and other types of development are only group averages, and parents should not be alarmed if their childrenʼs progress does not match these norms exactly. Cultural variations in the pacing of motor development demonstrate the importance of learning - Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are both well suited to developmental research. Corss-sectional studies are quicker, easier, and less expensive to conduct. Longitudinal studies are more sensitive to developmental changes. - Temperamental differences among children are apparent during the first few months of life. Thomas and Chess found that most infants could be classified as easy, slow-to- Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span warm-up, or difficult children. These differences in temperament are fairly stable and probably have a genetic basis. The Wondrous Years of Childhood Exploring the World: Motor Development - motor development - the progression of muscular co-ordination required for physical activities BASIC PRINCIPLES - cephlocaudal trend - the head-to-foot direction of motor development - proximodistal trend - the centre-outward direction of motor development - children gain control over their torso before their extremities - infants typically grow roughly triple their birth weight during the first year, while height increases by about 45% - is used to be assumed that this physical growth involved a gradual, steady process that yielded smooth continuous growth curves - but more recently, demonstration that early growth is actually very irregular - growth spurts tended to be accompanied by restlessness and irritability - early progress in motor skills has traditionally been attributed almost entirely to the process of maturation - development that reflects the gradual unfolding of oneʼs genetic blueprint. - product of genetically programmed physical changes that come with age as opposed to experience and learning - recent research however has taken a closer look at hteh process of motor development and suggests that infants are active agents ratehr than passive organisms waiting for their brain and limbs to mature --> driving force behind motor development is infantsʼ ongoing exploration of their world and their need to master specific tasks UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS - developmental norms - indicate the median age at which individuals display various behaviours and abilities - parents should not be alarmed if their childrenʼs progress does not match these norms exactly. CULTURAL VARIATIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE - relatively rapid motor development has been observed in some cultures that provide special practice in basic motor skills - relatively slow motor development has been found in some cultures that discourage motor exploration - demonstrate that environmental factors can accelerate or slow early motor development - similarities across cultures in the sequence and timing of early motor development out weight the differences - --> early motor development depends to a considerable extent on maturation. later motor development is another matter, however. Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span Easy and Difficult Babies: Differences in Temperament - infants show considerable variability in temperament - refers to characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity - longitudinal design investigators - observe one group of participants repeatedly over a period of time - takes years to complete, participants often drop out because they move away or lose interest - more sensitive to developmental influences and changes than cross-sectional designs - cross-sectional design investigators - compare groups of participants of differing age at a single point in time - can be completed more quickly, easily and cheaply - Thomas and Chess found that most infants could be classified as easy, slow-to-warmup, or difficult children - found that temperamental individuality is well established by the time infant is two to three months old -childʼs temperament at three months was a fair predictor of the childʼs temperament at age ten - other research more or less agreed with Thomas and Chess however indicated that temperament tended to stabilize a little later (age one or two) than Thomas and Chess suggested - research by Kagan - 15-20% of infants display inhibited temperament - shyness, timidity and wariness of unfamiliar people, objects and events - 25%-30% of infants display uninhibited temperament - less restrained, approaching unfamiliar people, objects, and events with little trepidation --> evidence suggests that these temperamental styles have a genetic basis and that they are reasonably stable into middle childhood KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 448-453) - Infantsʼ attachments to their caregivers develop gradually. Separation anxiety usually appears around six to eight months of age. Research shows that attachment emerges out of an interplay between infant and mother. Infant-mother attachments fall into three categories: secure, axious-ambivalent, and avoidant. A secure attachment fosters selfesteem, persistence, curiosity, and self-reliance, among other desirable traits. - Bonding during the first few hours after birth does not appear to be crucial to secure attachment. The effects of daycare on attachment are a source of concern, but the evidence is hotly debated. Cultural variations in childrearing can affect the patterns of attachment seen in a society. - A stage is a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited. Stage theories assume that individuals must progress through a series of specified stages in a particular order and that development is marked by major discontinuities. - Erik Eriksonʼs theory of personality development proposed that individuals evolve through eight stages over the life span. In each stage the person wrestles with two opposing tendencies evoked by the stages psychosocial crisis. Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span Early Emotional Development: Attachment - attachment - refers to the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers - infantʼs attachment to their mother is not instantaneous - 6-8 months, infants begin to show a preference for their motherʼs company and often protest when separated from her - first manifestation of separation anxiety - emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment --> typically peeks at around 14-18 months and then begins to decline PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT - Mary Ainsworth - suggested that attachment emerges out of a complex interplay between infant and mother - mothers who are sensitive and responsive to their childrenʼs needs tend to evoke more secure attachments than mothers who are relatively insensitive or inconsistent in their responding - correlation is modest - other factors involved -->infants are active participants who influence the process with their crying, smiling, fussing, and babbling. difficult infants who are prone to distress, spit up most of their food, make bathing a major battle, refuse to go to sleep, and rarely smile may sometimes undermine a motherʼs responsiveness - secure attachment - infants play and explore comfortably with their mother present, become visibly upset when she leaves, and are quickly calmed by her return - anxious ambivalent attachment - infants appear anxious even when their mother is near and protest excessively when she leaves but they are not particularly comforted when she returns - avoidant attachment - children seek little contact with their mother and often are not distressed when she leaves - correlation between infant temperament and attachment security are modest, although evidence suggests that insecure attachments occur more often with temperamentally difficult infants who are fussy, fretful, and irritable EFFECTS OF SECURE ATTACHMENT - evidence suggests that the quality of these attachment relationship can have important consequence for children - infants with a relatively secure attachment tend to become resilient, competent toddlers with high self-esteem - preschool years - more persistence, curiosity, self-reliance, and leadership and have better peer relations, while experiencing fewer negative emotions and more positive emotions - middle childhood - display better social skills and have richer friendship networks than youngsters who lacked a secure attachment during infancy - research suggests that children who have a secure attachment to both their parents are better off than those who have a secure attachment to only one parent Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span - all relevant data on attachment effects are correlational so we cannot assume that secure attachment causes all these favourable outcomes DAYCARE AND ATTACHMENT - does frequent infant-mother separations disrupt the attachment process - Belsky suggests that babies who receive non-maternal care for more than 20 hours per week have an increased risk of developing insecure attachments to their mothers - However... - even the most “alarming: data suggest that the proportion of daycare infants who exhibit insecure attachments is only slightly higher than the norm in North American society and even lower than the norm in some other societies - tee preponderance of evidence suggest that daycare is not harmful to childrenʼs attachment relationships - given the deprived childrearing conditions found in many homes, there is evidence that daycare can have beneficial effects on some youngstersʼ social development CULTURE AND ATTACHMENT - separation anxiety emerges in children at about six to eight months and peaks at about 14-18 months in cultures around the world - suggest that attachment is a universal feature of human development - cultural variations in the proportion of infants who fall into the three attachment categories described by Ainsworth - researchers have attributed these disparities in attachment patterns to cultural variations in childrearing practices - critics assert that there are significant cultural variations in what represents a secure parent-child attachment and in the effects of secure attachment EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES ON ATTACHMENT - Bowlby analyzed attachment in terms of its survival value for infants - contemporary evolutionary theorists emphasize how attachment contributes to parentsʼ and childrenʼs reproductive fitness Becoming Unique: Personality Development - Freud - claimed that the basic foundation of an individualʼs personality is firmly laid down by age five - Erik Erikson proposed a sweeping revision of Freudʼs theory that has proven influential - concluded that events in early childhood leave permanent stamp on adult personality, however, Erikson theorized that personality continues to evolve over the entire life span - devised a stage theory of personality development - stage - a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited and certain capacities become established - Stage theories assume that (1) individuals must progress through specified stages in a particular order because each stage builds on the previous stage (2) progress through these stages is strongly related to age Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span (3) development is marked by major discontinuities that usher in dramatic transitions in behaviour ERIKSONʼS STAGE THEORY - partitioned the life span into eight stages each of which brings a psychosocial crisis involving transitions in important social relationships - according to Erikson, personality is shaped by how individuals deal with these psychosocial crises - each psychosocial crises involves a struggle between two opposing tendencies - Viewed each stage as a tug of war that determined the subsequent balance between opposing polarities in personality --> First four stages (1) Trust versus Mistrust - first year of life, when infant has to depend completely on adults to take care of its basic needs - if basic biological needs are met by caregivers and sound attachments are formed, child should develop an optimistic, trusting attitude toward the world (2) Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt - during the second and third years of life, when parents begin toilet training and other efforts to regulate the childʼs behaviour - child must begin to take some personal responsibility for feeding, dressing, and bathing - if all goes well - acquires a sense of self-sufficiency (3) Initiative versus Guilt - roughly from ages three to six, children experiment and take initiatives that may sometimes conflict with their parentsʼ rules - Over-controlling parents may begin to instil feelings of guilt, and self-esteem may suffer - Parents need to support their childrenʼs emerging independence while maintaining appropriate controls (4)Industry versus Inferiority - six through puberty, challenge of learning to function socially is extended beyond the family to the broader social realm of the neighbourhood and school - Children who are able to function effectively in this less nurturing social sphere where productivity is highly valued should learn to value achievement and to take pride in accomplishment, resulting in a sense of competence EVALUATING ERIKSONʼS THEORY - accounts for both continuity and transition in personality development - transition by showing how new challenges in social relations stimulate personality development throughout life Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span - continuity by drawing connections between early childhood experiences and aspects of adult personality - negative side - his theory has depended heavily on illustrative case studies, which are open to varied interpretations - the theory provides an “idealized” description of “typical” developmental patterns --> not well suited for explaining the enormous personality differences that exist among people KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 453-461) - According to Piagetʼs theory of cognitive development, the key advance during the sensorimotor period is the childʼs gradual recognition of the permanence of objects. The preoperational period is marked by certain deficiencies in thinking- notably, centration, irreversibility, and egocentrism. - During the concrete operations period, children develop the ability to perform operations on metal representations, making them capable of conservation and hierarchical classification. The stage of formal operations ushers in more abstract, systematic, and logical thought. - Piaget may have underestimated some aspects of childrenʼs cognitive development and his theory, like other stage theories, does not explain individual differences very well. Nonetheless, his work has greatly improved psychologyʼs understanding of cognitive development. Neo-Piagetian theories have extended Piagetʼs formulations by emphasizing the role of information processing concepts. - Recent research has shown that infants appear to understand surprisingly complex concepts that they have had virtually no opportunity to learn about, leading some theorists to conclude that basic cognitive abilities are biologically built into humansʼ neural architecture. Childrenʼs understanding of the mind seems to turn a corner between ages three and four. - According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning progresses through six stages that are related to age and determined by cognitive development. Age-related progress in moral reasoning has been found in research, although a great deal of overlap occurs between adjacent stages. Growth of Thought: Cognitive Development - cognitive development - transitions in youngstersʼ patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving OVERVIEW OF PIAGETʼS STAGE THEORY - a stage theory of development - proposed taht youngsters progress through four major stages of conitive development, which are characterized by fundamentally different thought processes: (1) the sensorimotor period (birth to age two) (2) the preoperational period (ages two to seven) (3) the concrete operational period (ages seven to 11) (4) the formal operational period (age 11 onward Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span - regarded his age norms as approximations an acknowledged that transitional ages may vary - Piaget asserted that interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think - children progress in their thinking through the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation - assimilation - involves interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without changing them - accommodation - involves changing existing mental structures to explain new experiences (1) Sensorimotor Period - Coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence - major development during this stage is the gradual appearance of symbolic thought - at the beginning of this stage, a childʼs behaviour is dominated by innate reflexes, but by the end of the stage, the child can use mental symbols to represent objects - object permanence - develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible (2) Preoperational Period - Development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration, and egocentrism - ages two to seven - children gradually improve their use of mental images - Piaget emphasizes the shortcomings in preoperational thought - beaker test - explained in lecture - children had not yet mastered the principle of conservation - Piagetʼs term for the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance --> Piaget says this is due to basic flaws in preoperational thinking - centration, irreversitility, and egocentrism - centration - the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects - when working on the conservation problem with water, preoperational children tend to concentrate on the height of the water while ignoring the width - irreversibility - the inability to envision reversing an action - preoperational children canʼt mentally “undo” something --> they donʼt think about what would happen if the water were poured back from the tall beaker into the original beaker - egocentrism - in thinking is characterized by a limited ability to share another personʼs viewpoint - preoperational children fail to appreciate that there are points of view other than their own - a notable feature of egocentrism is animism - the belief that all things are living --> youngsters attribute lifelike, human qualities to inanimage objects Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span (3) Concrete Operational Period - Mental operations applied to concrete events mastery of conservation, hierarchical classification - development of mental operations - beginning of this stage - children can perform operations only on images of tangible objects and actual events - among the operations that children master during this stage are reversibility and decentration - reversibility permits child to mentally undo an action - decentration allows the child to focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously --> helps the child appreciate that there are several ways to look at things - decline in egocentrism and gradual mastery of conservation (as it applies to liquid, mass, number, volume, area, and length) - generally, preoperational children canʼt handles hierarchical classification problems that require them to focus simultaneously on two levels of classification - concrete operational period children can - more flowers or carnations? answer = flowers. (4) Formal Operational Period - Mental operations applied to abstract ideas; logical, systematic thinking - begins around 11 years of age - children begin to apply their operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects - he believed that after children achieve formal operations, further developments in thinking are changes in degree rather than fundamental changes in the nature of thinking - adolescents in the formal operational period become more systematic in their problem-solving efforts - children in earlier developmental stages tend to attach problems quickly, with a trial-and-error approach EVALUATING PIAGETʼS THEORY - Landmark contribution to psychology - weak/controversial spots: - his theory views infant development a sa relatively discontinuous process composed, as we have seen, of a series of discrete stages some psychologists suggest that there is evidence suggestive of continuity at the end of the second year, a point at which it is assumed that discontinuity would be in evidence - 1. In many areas, Piaget appears to have underestimated young childrenʼs cognitive development - researchers have found evidence that children begin to develop object permanence much earlier than Piaget thought, others have marshalled evidence that preoperational children exhibit less egocentrism and animism than Piaget believed - 2. Piagetʼs model suggers from problems that plague most stage theories - little to say about individual differences in development, also people often simultaneously display patterns of thinking that are characteristic of several stages --> mixing of stages calls into question the value of organizing development in terms of stages Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span - 3. Piaget believed that his theory described universal processes that should lead children everywhere to progress through uniform stages of thinking at roughly the same ages - research has shown that the sequence of stages is largely invariant but the timetable that children follow in passing through these stages varies considerably across cultures NEO-PIAGETIAN THEORIES - neo-Piagetians have extended some of Piagetʼs ideas, integrating them with current perspectives on the nature of information processing - Neo-Piagetian theories have extended Piagetʼs formulations by emphasizing the role of information processing concepts. - Pascual-Leone - found that the complexity that children could deal with baried positively across age --> led him to reinterpret Piagetʼs developmental stages and to implicate informationprocessing concepts in understanding cognitive development - one of his developments was the concept of M-capacity --> an increase in information-processing capacity is one of the attributes that forms the basis of cognitive development -->progressive mental tasks increase the mental demand imposed on the child, and children are successful only if they possess the required mental power --> M-capacity relates to the maximum number of mental concepts that an individual can keep in mind at one time - Robbie Case - best known for his staircase model of development and the concept of central processing structures - suggests that one of the fundamental issues in developmental psychology is whether development can be conceptualized in terms of the development of one rather general intellectual attribute or fact, or a set of more discrete aspects (i.e., a more modular approach) - his view is that there are four major stages of cognitive development but that each stage is assumed to have its own distinct structure and cognitive operation --> argues that while cognitive development proceeds in line with Piagetʼs stage view of progression, there is a distinct set of cognitive skills involved that may show uneven development - children may show higher levels of development in some domains than others ARE SOME COGNITIVE ABILITIES INNATE? - Many studies have made use of the habituation-dishabituation pradigm - habituation - a gradual reduction in the strength of a response when a stimulus event is presented repeatedly - dishabituation - occurs if a new stimulus elicits an increase in the strength of a habituated response - patterns of dishabituation can give researchers insights into what types of event infants can tell apart, which events surprise or interest them, and which events violate their expectations Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span - researchers have discovered that infants understand basic properties of objects and some of the rules that govern them - other research has shown that infantsʼ ability to categorize objects is much more advanced thane previously appreciated - infants seem to be able to add and subtract small numbers - research has shown that infants appear to understand surprisingly complex concepts that they have had virtually no opportunity to learn about - led some theorists to conclude that certain basic cognitive abilities are biologically built into humans neural architecture. --> these theorist fall under two camps: nativists and evolutionary theorists - nativists assert that humans are prewired to readily understand certain concepts without making any assumptions about why humans are prewired in these ways - evolutionary theorists agree with nativists but are keenly interested in why - they maintain that this wiring is a product of natural selection and they strive to understand its adaptive significance - argue that the findings on infantsʼ surprising abilities demonstrate that the human mind is modular- that it is made up of domain-specific modules that have been crafted by natural selection to solve specific adaptive problems WHAT DO CHILDREN UNDERSTAND ABOUT THE MIND? - researchers study when and how children come to understand that other people have knowledge, beliefs and desires that may be quite different from their own - most children under age four do not yet appreciate that people can hold false beliefs that do not accurately reflect reality - researchers have mapped out some milestones in the development of childrenʼs understanding of mental states - ~ 2, children begin to distinguish between mental states and overt behaviour the first mental states they understand are desires and emotions ~ 3, children are talking about othersʼ beliefs and thoughts as well as their desires ~ 4, children consistently make the connection between mental states and behaviour they begin to understand how peopleʼs beliefs, thoughts and desires motivate and direct their behaviour - childrenʼs understanding of the mind seems to turn a corner between ages three and four, so that four-year-olds typically being to grasp the fact that people may hold false beliefs - Lalonde and Chandler suggests that there is a later developmental milestone, typically arrived at in the early school years, that reflects the development of an interpretive theory of mind - children initially develop a copy view of the mind in which they assume the mind operates like a recording device that may produce accurate or inaccurate representations - the progressively more mature theory of mind is referred to as the interpretive theory of mind, in which children understand that minds creatively construct and uniquely interpret reality Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span The Development of Moral Reasoning KOHLBERGʼS STAGE THEORY - attempts to explain how youngsters develop a sense of right and wrong - Piaget theorized that moral development is determined by cognitive development - the way individuals think out moral issues depends on their level of cognitive development - Kohlbergʼs theory focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour - He presented his subjects with thorny moral questions such as Heinzʼs dilemma - he then asked them what the actor in the dilemma should do, and more important, why the “why” is what interested him - found hat individuals progress through a series of three levels of moral development, each of which can be broken into two sub-levels, yielding a total of six stages - each stage represents a different approach to thinking about right and wrong - Younger children at the preconventional level think in terms of external authority - acts are wrong because they are punished or tight because they lead to positive consequences - Older children who have reached the conventional level of moral reasoning see rules as necessary for maintaining social order - they accept these rules as their own internalize these rules to be virtuous and win approval from others - During adolescence, some youngsters move on to the postconventional level which involves working out a personal code of ethics - acceptance of rules is less rigid and moral thinking shows some flexibility - allow for possibility that someone might not comply with some of societies rules if they conflict with person ethics EVALUATING KOHLBERGʼS THEORY - studies have shown that youngsters generally do progress through his stages of moral reasoning in the order he proposed - there is great variation in the age at which people reach specific stages - evidence suggests that moral reasoning is predictive of moral behaviour - Critics: 1. itʼs not unusual to find that a person shows signs of several adjacent levels of moral reasoning at a particular point in development 2. It is somewhat disconcerting to consider how much we have learned about peopleʼs judgements about Heinz and his dilemma, and how little we have learned about reallife moral judgement 3. Sizeable cultural disparities have been found in peopleʼs progress through Kohlbergʼs stages - some critics believe that the value judgements built into his theory reflect liberal, individualistic ideology characteristics of modern Western nations that is much more culture-specific than he appreciated 4. argue that his theory was based primarily on male participantsʼ responses and is biased against the equally principled moral reasoning of females KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 462-468) - The growth spurt at puberty is a prominent event involving the development of reproductive maturity and secondary sex characteristics - Adolescent suicide rates have climbed dramatically in recent decades, and attempted suicides have increased even more. Although school shootings remain rare, there is Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span an association between adolescence and the prevalence of violent crime. Most theorists do not view adolescence as a time of turmoil, but Arnett argues that adolescence is slightly more stressful than other periods of life - According to Erikson, the key challenge of adolescence is to make some progress toward a sense of identity. Marcia identifies four patterns of identity formation: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. The Transition of Adolescence - in our society, adolescence begins at around 12 and ends at about 22. - Period of development in which individuals are presented with a series of challenges, new experiences, and new demands, and adolescentsʼ sense of self may undergo changes - adolescence is not universal across cultures - in some cultures, people move from childhood to adulthood Puberty and the Growth Spurt - adolescent growth spurt - phase of rapid growth in height and weight brought on by hormonal changes - usually starts at about 11 years of age in girls and about two years later in boys - pubescence - describes the two year span preceding puberty during which the changes leading to physical and sexual maturity take place - grow taller, heavier - develop the physical features that characterize adults of their respective sexes --> secondary sex characteristics - physical features that distinguish one sex from the other but that are not essential for reproduction - males - voice change, facial hair, greater skeletal and muscle growth in the upper torso leading to broader shoulders - females- breast growth and widening of the pelvic bones plus increased fat deposits in this area, resulting in wider hips - puberty - the stage during which sexual functions reach maturity, which marks the beginning of adolescence - primary sex characteristics - the structures necessary for reproduction - males - testes, penis, related internal structures - female - ovaries, vagina, uterus, other internal structures - the onset of puberty is typically signalled in females by menarche - the first occurence of menstruation - there have been generational changes in the timing of puberty - todayʼs adolescents begin puberty at a younger age, and complete it more rapidly than did their counterparts in earlier generations - generally, girls who mature early and boys who mature late seem to have more emotional difficulties with the transition to adolescence - in both males and females, early maturation is associated with greater use of alcohol and drugs, more high-risk behaviour, and more trouble with the law. Among females, early maturation is also correlated with poorer school performance, earlier experience of intercourse, more unwanted pregnancies, and greater risk for eating problems and disorders. Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span Time of Turmoil? - G. Stanley Hall proposed that the adolescent years are characterized by convulsive instability and disturbing inner turmoil - Statistics on adolescent suicide would seem to support the idea that adolescence is a time marked by turmoil, but the figures can be interpreted in various ways. - Adolescent suicide rates have climbed dramatically in recent decades, and attempted suicides have increased even more. - Chandler and Lalonde - youth suicide in Canadaʼs First Nations - argue that a sense of personal continuity or personal persistence is fundamental to psychological health - two important sets of circumstances may combine to cause the high suicide levels - the set of changes that most adolescents experience - the other arises whenever oneʼs culture, out of which the particulars f oneʼs identity are necessarily composed, is also thrown into serious disarray The Search for Identity - Erik Erikson - was especially interested in personality development during adolescence - fifth stage of the eight major life stages he described --> psychosocial crisis during this stage = identity versus confusion - the premiere challenge of adolescence is the struggle to form a clear sense of identity - Erikson recognized that the process of identity formation begins before adolescence and often extends beyond it - especially intense during adolescence - Fraser and Marcia - the presence or absence of a sense of commitment (to life goals and values) and a sense of crisis (active questioning and exploration) can combine to produce four different identity statuses - orientations that may occur at a particular time - Marciaʼs four identity statuses - 1. Identity diffusion - a state of rudderless apathy. Some people simply refuse to confront the challenge of charting a life course and committing to an ideology. Although this stance allows them to evade the crisis of identity, the lack of direction can be problematic, as people in this status exhibit more social and psychological problems than others - 2. Identity foreclosure - a premature commitment to visions, values, and roles typically those prescribed by oneʼs parents. This path allows a person to circumvent much of the struggle for an identity. However, it may backfire and cause problems later - 3. Identity moratorium - involves delaying commitment for a while to experiment with alternative ideologies and careers. Such experimentation can be valuable. Unfortunately, some people remain indefinitely in what should be a temporary phase. Identity moratorium is associated with self-doubt and confusion - 4. Identity achievement - involves arriving at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilities. Commitments have the strength of some conviction, although theyʼre not absolutely irrevocable. Identity achievement is Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span associated with higher self-esteem, greater security, and a variety of other healthy traits - Even after people reach identity achievement, the process of identity formation continues KEY POINTS IN THIS CHAPTER (pages 469-480) - During adulthood, personality is marked by both stability and change. Doubts have surfaced about whether a midlife crisis is a normal developmental transition. Adults who move successfully through the three stages of adulthood posited by Erikson should develop intimacy, generativity and integrity. - Many landmarks in adult development involve transitions in family relationships. Difficulty adjusting to marriage is more likely when spouses have different role expectations. Marital satisfaction tends to be highest at the beginning and end of the family life cycle. - Unrealistic expectations make the adjustment to parenthood more stressful. Parentadolescent relations are not as contentious as widely assumed. For most parents, the empty nest transition no longer appears to be as stressful as it once was. - During adulthood, age-related physical transitions include changes in appearance, sensory losses (especially in vision and hearing), and hormonal changes. Menopause is not as problematic as widely suggested. Drastic mental decline is not a part of the normal aging process. However, 15%-20% of adults over age 75 suffer from some form of dementia - In the cognitive domain, general intelligence is fairly stable, with a small decline in average test scores seen after the age of 60. Many studies have found decreases in older adultsʼ memory capabilities, but the losses are moderate and variable. Mental speed declines in late adulthood. Nonetheless, many people remain productive well into old age. - Many of our seven integrative themes stood out in this chapter. But above all else, our discussion of development showed how heredity and environment interactively shape behaviour. The Expanse of Adulthood - important changes occur throughout the life cycle - recognition that the historical context people live in can have profound impact on their developmental trajectories - developmental patterns are becoming more diverse - boundaries between young, middle, and late adulthood are becoming blurred as more and more people have children later than one is “supposed” to, retire earlier than on is “supposed” to, and so forth. Personality Development THE QUESTION OF STABILITY - Gould - the evolution of a personality continues through the fifth decade of life - Helson and Moane - personality does change from youth to middle age in consisten and often predictable ways Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span - other researchers have been struck by the stability and durability they have found in personality. - personality tend to be quite stable over periods of 20 to 40 years - personality in early adulthood is a good predictor of personality in late adulthood and that the stability of personality increases with age up to about age 50 - Contradicting conclusions? - personality is characterized by both stability and change --> some personality traits tend to remain stable, while others tend to change systematically as people grow older THE QUESTION OF THE MIDLIFE CRISIS - midlife crisis - a difficult turbulent period of doubts and reappraisal of oneʼs life - Midlife may bring a period of increased reflection as people contemplate the remainder of their lives, but itʼs clear that the fable midlife crisis is not typical ERIKSONʼS VIEW OF ADULTHOOD - 6. Intimacy versus Isolation - In early adulthood, the key concern is whether one can develop the capacity to share intimacy with others. Successful resolution of the challenges in this stage should promote empathy and openness rather than shrewdness and manipulativeness - 7. Generativity versus Self-Absorption - In middle adulthood, the key challenge is to acquire a genuine concern for the welfare of future generations, which results in providing unselfish guidance to younger people and concern with oneʼs legacy. Selfabsorption is characterized by self-indulgent concerns with meeting oneʼs own needs and desires - 8. Integrity versus Despair - During the retirement years, the challenge is to avoid the tendency to dwell on the mistakes of the past and on oneʼs imminent death. People need to find meaning and satisfaction in their lives, rather than wallow in bitterness and resentment Transitions in Family Life - family life cycle - a sequence of stages that families tend to progress through - family structure diverse now in North America - in reality, not the traditional nuclear family - everyone emerges from families and most people go on to form their own family - transitional period during which young adults are between families until they form a new family is being prolonged by more and more individuals ADJUSTING TO MARRIAGE - newly married couple usually settle into their roles as husband and wife gradually - substantial differences in role expectations seem particularly likely in this era of transition in gender roles - women who have non-traditional attitudes about gender roles are more likely to perceive their share of housework as unfair than women with traditional attitudes - in general, however, the first few years of married life tend to be characterized by great happiness Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span - Numerous studies have measured measured spousesʼ overall satisfaction in different stages of the family life cycle and found a U-shaped relationship - the burdens of childrearing and resulting reduction in time spent together undermine couplesʼ satisfaction, which gradually climbs back up again as children grow up and these burdens ease - pre-children phase of the family life cycle used to be rather short for most newly married couples ADJUSTING TO PARENTHOOD - the vast majority of married couples have children and rate parenthood as a highly positive experience - major transition and disruption of old routines can be extremely stressful - mother is particularly prone to postpartum stress - couples who have high levels of affection and commitment prior to the first childʼs birth are likely to maintain a stable level of satisfaction after the birth - key to making transition less stressful is to have realistic expectations about parental responsibilities - As children grow up, parental influence over them declines - when conflicts occur between parent and adolescent child, more adverse effects on the parents than the children ADJUSTING TO THE EMPTY NEXT - this period was formerly thought to be a difficult transition for many parents, especially mothers who were familiar only with the maternal role. In recent decades, however, more women have experience with other roles outside the home --> most parents adjust effectively to the empty nest transitions and are more likely to have problems if their children return to the once-empty nest - spouses have to adapt to spending more time with each other and often need to renegotiate role expectations Aging and Physical Changes - hair tends to thin out and become grey, and many males confront receding hairlines and baldness - Proportion of body fat tends to increase with age, while the amount of muscle tissue decreases - sensory losses (especially in vision and hearing) - hormonal changes. Menopause is not as problematic as widely suggested. - Drastic mental decline is not a part of the normal aging process. However, 15%-20% of adults over age 75 suffer from some form of dementia - an abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment - Alzheimers... Aging and Cognitive Changes - general intelligence is fairly stable, with a small decline in average test scores seen after the age of 60. - group averages can be deceptive in that mean scores can be dragged down by a Chapter 11: Human Development across the Life Span small minority of people who show a decline - even when age-related decreases in intellectual performance are found, they tend to be small in all but a few individuals - some forms of intelligence are more vulnerable to aging than others --> fluid intelligence - basic information-processing skills --> more likely to decline with age --> crystallized intelligence - application of accumulated knowledge - Many studies have found decreases in older adultsʼ memory capabilities, but the losses are moderate and variable. - most reliable decrements are usually seen in episodic memory and working memory with less consistent losses observed on tasks involving procedural memory and semantic memory - Mental speed declines in late adulthood. Nonetheless, many people remain productive well into old age.
