Birthing and Anesthesia: The Debate over Twilight Sleep
Author(s): Judith Walzer Leavitt
Source: Signs, Vol. 6, No. 1, Women: Sex and Sexuality, Part 2 (Autumn, 1980), pp. 147-164
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3173972 .
Accessed: 24/10/2013 18:07
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
.
The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Signs.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
REVISIONS/REPORTS
Birthingand Anesthesia: The Debate
over Twilight Sleep
JudithWalzer Leavitt
"At midnightI was awakened by a very sharp pain," wrote Mrs. Cecil
Stewart,describingthe birthof her child in 1914. "The head nurse ...
gave me an injectionof scopolamin-morphin.... I woke up the next
morningabout half-pastseven ... the door opened, and the head nurse
brought in my baby. ... I was so happy."1 Mrs. Stewarthad delivered
her baby under the influenceof scopolamine, a narcoticand amnesiac
that, together with morphine, produced a state popularly known as
"twilightsleep." She did not rememberanythingof the experience when
she woke up after givingbirth.This 1914 ideal contrastswith today's
feministstresson being awake, aware, and in controlduring the birthing
experience. In 1914 and 1915, thousands of American women testified
to the marvelsof havingbabies withoutthe traumaof childbirth.As one
of them gratefullyput it,"The nightof myconfinementwillalwaysbe a
nightdropped out of mylife."2
I am gratefulto WilliamJ. Orr,Jr.,and Susan Duke fortheirassistancein the preparationof thisstudy.I would also like to thank Mari Jo Buhle, Norman Fost, Susan Friedman, Lewis Leavitt,Elaine Marks, Regina Morantz,and Ronald Numbers for theircommentson earlier draftsof thispaper.
1. Testimonyquoted in MargueriteTracy and Mary Boyd, Painless Childbirth
(New
York: FrederickA. Stokes Co., 1915), pp. 188-89. For a thoroughaccount of the twilight
sleep controversyin America,see Lawrence G. Miller,"Pain, Parturition,and the Profession: The TwilightSleep in America,"in HealthCare in America:Essaysin Social History,
ed.
Susan Reverby and David Rosner (Philadelphia: Temple UniversityPress, 1979), pp.
19-44.
2. Tracy and Boyd, p. 198.
[Signs:Journalof Womenin Cultureand Society1980, vol. 6, no. I]
? 1980 by The Universityof Chicago. 0097-9740/81/0601-0012$01.00
147
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
148
Leavitt
TwilightSleep
From the perspective of today's ideology of woman-controlled
births,it may appear that women who want anesthesia sought to cede
control of their birthsto their doctors. I will argue however, that the
twilightsleep movement led by women in 1914 and 1915 was not a
relinquishingof control. Rather,it was an attemptto gain controlover
the birthingprocess. Feministwomen wanted the parturient,not the
doctor or attendant,to choose the kind of deliveryshe would have. This
essay examines the apparent contradictionin the women's demand to
controltheirbirthsby going to sleep.
TheProcess
The attendants,location,and drugs or instrumentsused in American women's birthingexperiences varied in the early decades of the
twentiethcentury.America's poorer and immigrantwomen delivered
theirbabies predominantlyat home, attended by midwiveswho seldom
administereddrugs and who called physiciansonly in difficultcases. A
small number of poor women gave birthin charityor public hospitals
where physiciansattended them. Most upper- and middle-classwomen,
who had more choice, elected to be attended by a physician,usually a
general practitionerbut increasinglya specially trained obstetrician,
ratherthan a midwife.At the turnof the twentiethcentury,these births,
too, typicallytook place in the woman's home; however,by the second
decade of the century,specialists,aided partly by the twilightsleep
movement,were movingchildbirthfromthe home to the hospital.3
Physiciansused drugs and techniques of physical interventionin
many cases, although the extentcannot be quantifiedaccurately.In addition to forceps, physicians relied on opium, chloroform, chloral,
cocaine, quinine, nitrousoxide, ergot,and etherto relievepain, expedite
labor, prevent injury in precipitous labors, control hemorrhage, and
prevent sepsis.4 In one study of 972 consecutive birthsin Wisconsin,
physiciansused chloroformduring the second stage of labor in half of
theircases and forcepsin 12 percent.5The reportsindicate that drugs
and instrumentsmay have made labors shorterbut not necessarilymore
enjoyable. Because most drugs could not be used safelythroughoutthe
labor and delivery,either because theyaffectedmuscle functionor because theywere dangerous for the baby, women stillexperienced pain.
The use of forcepsfrequentlyadded to discomfortand caused perineal
tears,complicatingpostdeliveryrecovery.Maternal mortalityremained
3. For more informationon childbirthpracticesin thisperiod, see JudyBarrettLitoff,
AmericanMidwives:1860 tothePresent(Westport,Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978).
MedicalJournal3 (1904-5): 257-65.
4. J. F. Ford, "Use of Drugs in Labor," Wisconsin
5. Ibid.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Signs
Autumn1980
149
high in the early decades of the twentiethcentury, and childbirth,
whetherattended by physiciansor midwives,continued to be risky.6
Most women described their physician-attendedchildbirthsas unpleasant at best. Observersof the decliningbirthratesamong America's
"better" classes worried that the "fear of childbirthhas poisoned the
happiness of many women"7 and caused them to want fewerchildren.
One woman told her doctor that her childbirthhad been "hell. ... It
burstsyour brain, and tears out your heart,and crashes your nerves to
bits.It'sjust like hell,and I won'tstand itagain. Never."8In scopolamine
deliveries,the women wentto sleep, delivered theirbabies, and woke up
feelingvigorous. The drug altered theirconsciousness so that theydid
not rememberpainfullabors,and theirbodies did not feel exhausted by
their efforts.9Both the women who demanded scopolamine and the
doctors who agreed to use it perceived it as far superior to other anesthesia because it did not inhibitmuscle functionand could be administered throughoutthe birthingprocess. It was the newestand finesttechnique available-"the greatestboon the TwentiethCenturycould give to
women," in the words of Dr. Bertha Van Hoosen, one of its foremost
medical advocates.10
However, women's bodies experienced their labors, even if their
minds did not remember them. Thus observers witnessed women
screamingin pain during contractions,thrashingabout, and givingall
the outward signs of "acute suffering."Residentsof RiversideDrive in
New York City testifiedthat women in Dr. William H. W. Knipe's
twilightsleep hospitalsent forth"objectionable"noises in the middle of
the night.l1
A successfultwilightsleep delivery,as practicedby Dr. Van Hoosen
at the MaryThompson Hospital in Chicago, required elaborate facilities
and careful supervision.Attendingphysiciansand nurses gave the first
6. See, e.g., Dorothy Reed Mendenhall ("Prenatal and Natal Conditions in Wisconsin," WisconsinMedicalJournal15 [1917]: 353-69), who reported, "The death rate from
maternityis gradually increasingin Wisconsin,as it is throughoutthe United States" (p.
birthswere higher
364). Dr. Mendenhall also noted thatdeath ratesforphysician-attended
than for midwife-attended
birthsin Wisconsin(p. 353). I would like to thank Dale Treleven forcalling thisarticleto myattention.
7. Mary Boyd, "The Storyof Dammerschlaf: An American Woman's Personal Experience and Studyat Freiburg,"Survey33 (1915): 129.
8. Quoted in Russell Kelso Carter, The SleepingCar "Twilight,"
or Motherhood
without
Pain (Boston: Chapple PublishingCo., 1915), pp. 10-11.
9. Scopolamine is an alkaloid found in the leaves and seeds of solanaceous plants. It is
a sedative and a mild analgesic as well as an amnesiac,causing forgetfulness
of pain rather
than blockingthe pain sensation. For obstetricaltwilightsleep, scopolamine was administered withmorphine-the most active alkaloid of opium-in the firstdose and alone for
subsequent doses.
10. Bertha Van Hoosen, Scopolamine-Morphine
Anaesthesia(Chicago: House of Manz,
1915), p. 101.
11. New YorkTimes(June 9, 1917), p. 13.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
150
Leavitt
TwilightSleep
injection of scopolamine as soon as a woman appeared to be in active
labor and continued the injections at carefullydetermined intervals
throughouther labor and delivery.They periodicallyadministeredtwo
teststo determinethe effectivenessof the anesthesia: the "calling test,"
which the parturientpassed if the doctor could not arouse her even by
addressing her in a loud voice, and the "incoordinationtest,"which she
passed ifher movementswere uncoordinated.Once the laboringwoman
was under the effectsof scopolamine,the doctorsput her intoa specially
designed crib-bedto contain her sometimesviolentmovements(see fig.
1). Van Hoosen described the need for the bed screens: "As the pains
increase in frequencyand strength,the patient tosses or throwsherself
about, but withoutinjuryto herself,and maybe leftwithoutfearthatshe
willroll onto the flooror be found wanderingaimlesslyin the corridors.
In rare cases, where the patient is veryexcitable and insistson getting
out of bed. ... I prefer to fasten a canvas cover over the tops of the
screens, therebyshuttingout light,noise and possibilityof leaving the
bed.12 When deliverybegan, attendantstook down the canvas crib and
positionedthe patientin stirrups,familiarin modern obstetricalservices.
Van Hoosen advised the use of a continuous sleeve to ensure that patientsdid not interferewiththe sterilefield(see fig.2). The canvas crib
and the continuous sleeve were Van Hoosen's response to a common
need in twilightsleep deliveries: a secure, darkened, quiet, contained
environment.
TheEvents
Twilightsleep became a controversialissue in Americanobstetricsin
June 1914, when McClure's Magazine published an article by two
laywomen describing this newly popular German method of painless
childbirth.'3 In the article, Marguerite Tracy and Constance Leupp,
both visitorsat the Freiburg women's clinic,criticizedhigh-forcepsdeliveries(which theycalled the common American technique) as dangerous and conducive to infection.They contrastedthese imperfectbirths
to the safetyand comfortof twilightsleep. The new method was so
wonderfulthatwomen, having once experienced it,would "walk all the
way [to Germany] from California" to have their subsequent births
under twilightsleep. The physiciansat the Freiburg clinic thoughtthe
method was best suited for the upper-class "modern woman .. . [who]
responds to the stimulusof severe pain ... withnervousexhaustionand
paralysisof the will to carrylabor to conclusion." They were less certain
12. Van Hoosen, p. 42.
13. MargueriteTracy and Constance Leupp, "Painless Childbirth,"McClure'sMagazine 43 (1914): 37-51.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
I:
iP
??"
.
i?,
n;:...?.?
s?r;::.
iBj?:.`:??i?.g
?;.
?.. ? ?. .-,
i:
:.Y
SiY ?irC
?' .?l??'i.
FIG. 1.-Patient in crib-bedwaitingfor examination. (Source: Bertha Van Hoosen. Scopola
House of Manz, 1915], p. 48.)
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
?V~~~~~~~*
'
w.S
~ --:l:
?~
tn
X~;~t*'
:i~!%f.~,~;
r:: .
~~
,~<? t~4s
..~U~a
?
V
'I
r
uetrl
FIG. 2.-Gown with continuous sleeve. (Source: Bertha Van Hoosen, ScopolamineMorphineAnaesthesia[Chicago: House of Manz, 1915], p. 88.)
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Signs
Autumn1980
153
about its usefulnessfor women who "earn theirlivingby manual labor"
and could toleratemore pain.14
The women who took up the cause of twilightsleep concluded thatit
was not in general use in thiscountrybecause doctorswere consciously
withholdingthis panacea. Physicianshave "held back" on developing
painless childbirth,accused Mary Boyd and Marguerite Tracy, two of
the most active proponents,because it "takes too much time." "Women
alone," they asserted, "can bring Freiburg methods into American
obstetricalpractice."'5Others echoed the call to arms:journalist Hanna
Rion urged her readers to "take up the battleforpainless childbirth....
Fight not only foryourselves,but fightfor your ... sex."'6 Newspapers
and popular magazinesjoined the chorus, advocatinga widespread use
of scopolamine in childbirth.17
The lay public's anger at the medical profession'sapparent refusal
to adopt a technique beneficialto women erupted into a national movement. The National Twilight Sleep Association, formed by uppermiddle-classclubwomen,'8was best epitomized by its leaders. They included women such as Mrs.Jesse F. Attwater,editorofFeminain Boston;
Dr. Eliza Taylor Ransom, activewomen's rightsadvocate and physician
in Boston; Mrs. Julian Heath of the National Housewife's League; author Rheta Childe Dorr of the Committeeon the IndustrialConditions
of Women and Children; Mary Ware Dennett of the National Suffrage
Association (and later the National Birth Control League); and Dr.
Bertha Van Hoosen, outspoken women's leader in medical circles in
Chicago.19 Many of these leaders saw the horrors of childbirthas an
14. Ibid., p. 43. For the same sentimentamong American physicians,see, e.g.,
John
O. Polak, "A Study of Scopolamin and Morphine Amnesia as Employed at Long Island
71 (1915): 722; and Henry SmithWilliams,
College Hospital,"AmericanJournal
ofObstetrics
PainlessChildbirth
(New York: Goodhue Co., 1914), pp. 90-91. The classic descriptionsof
the ideal scopolamine deliveryare Bernhard Kronig,"Painless Deliveryin Dammerschlaf"
(1908); and Carl J. Gauss, "Birthsin ArtificialDammerschlaf" (1906) and "Further Experimentsin Dammerschlaf"(1911), all translatedand reprintedin Tracy and Boyd (n. 1
above), pp. 205-308.
15. Mary Boyd and MargueriteTracy, "More about Painless Childbirth,"McClure's
Magazine 43 (1914): 57-58.
16. Hanna Rion,PainlessChildbirth
in Twilight
Sleep (London: T. Werner Laurie Ltd.,
1915), p. 239; see also her "The Painless Childbirth,"LadiesHomeJournal31 (1914): 9-10.
17. See, e.g., "Is the Twilight Sleep Safe-for Me?" Woman'sHome
Companion42
(1915): 10, 43; WilliamArmstrong,"The 'TwilightSleep' of Freiburg:A Visitto the Much
Talked of Women's Clinic," Woman'sHome Companion41 (1914): 4, 69; New YorkTimes
(September 17, 1914), p. 8; (November 28, 1914), p. 2.
18. On women's clubs and clubwomen,see MaryP. Ryan,Womanhood
inAmerica:From
ColonialTimestothePresent(New York: New Viewpoints,1975),
pp. 227-32; Edith Hoshino
Altbach, Womenin America(Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath & Co., 1914), pp. 114-21;
William L. O'Neill, EveryoneWas Brave: A HistoryofFeminismin America
(Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1969), pp. 107-68; Sheila M. Rothman, Woman'sProperPlace: A Historyof
ChangingIdealsand Practices,1870 tothePresent(New York: Basic Books, 1978), pp. 63-93.
19. Carter,pp. 174-75.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
154
Leavitt
TwilightSleep
experience that united all women: "Childbirthhas for every woman
through all time been potentially great emergency."20Dr. Ransom
thought that the use of twilightsleep would "create a more perfect
motherhood" and urged others to work "for the bettermentof womenkind."2' Because they saw it as an issue for their sex, not just their
class, and because many of the twilight sleep leaders were active
feminists,theyspoke in the idiom of the woman movement.22
The associationsponsored ralliesin major citiesto acquaint women
withthe issue of painless childbirthand to pressure the medical profession into adopting the new method. In order to broaden their appeal,
the associationstaged meetings"betweenthe marked-downsuitsand the
table linen" of departmentstoreswhere "the ordinarywoman" as well as
the activistclubwoman could be found.23At these rallies,women who
had traveledto Freiburgtestifiedto thewondersof twilightsleep (see fig.
3). "I experienced absolutelyno pain," claimed Mrs. FrancisX. Carmody
of Brooklyn,displayingher healthybaby at Gimbels."An hour aftermy
child was born I ate a heartybreakfast.... The thirdday I went for an
automobile ride. ... The TwilightSleep is wonderful."Mrs. Carmody
ended withthe familiarrallyingcry:"If you women wantit you willhave
to fightfor it,forthe mass of doctorsare opposed to it."24
Department-storerallies and extensivepress coverage brought the
movement to the attentionof a broad segment of American women.
Movement leaders rejoiced over episodes such as the one in which a
"tenementhouse mother... collecteda crowd" on a streetcornerwhere
she joyfullytold of her twilightsleep experience.25Many working-class
women were attracted to twilight sleep not only because it made
childbirth"pleasanter" but because they saw its use as "an important
cause of decreased mortalityand increased healthand vitalityamong the
mothersof children."26Some feared,however,thattwilightsleep would
remain a "superadded luxuryof the wealthymother"because it involved
so much physician time and hospital expense.27 Although different
motivations propelled the physician-advocateswho believed twilight
sleep was safe, middle- and upper-classwomen who wanted the newest
20. Tracy and Boyd, p. 145.
Club Women1 (1917): 5. I am
21. Eliza Taylor Ransom, "TwilightSleep," Massachusetts
this
reference.
for
Morantz
Markell
to
grateful Regina
22. The connectionsbetween clubwomen and suffrageor other women's issues are
and
explored in Altbach, pp. 114-15; O'Neill, pp. 49-76, 146-68; Ryan, pp. 230-49;
in theUnitedStates(New
Eleanor Flexner,Century
ofStruggle:The Woman'sRightsMovement
York: Atheneum Publishers, 1970), pp. 172-92. The term "woman movement,"in the
nineteenthand early twentiethcenturies,described the movementto betterwomen's condition,including,but not limitedto, the drive forsuffrage.
23. Tracy and Boyd, p. 145.
24. Quoted in New YorkTimes(November 18, 1914), p. 18.
25. Tracy and Boyd, p. 145.
26. Clara G. Stillman,"Painless Childbirth,"New YorkCall (July 12, 1914), p. 15.
SocialistReview
27. Sam Schmalhauser,"The TwilightSleep forWomen,"International
15 (1914): 234-35. I am gratefulto MariJo Buhle forthisand the previous reference.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Signs
Autumn1980
155
FIG. 3.-Mrs. FrancisXavierCarmodyand "Charlemagne,"born in Freiburg.(Source:
[New York: Frederick A. Stokes
Marguerite Tracy and Mary Boyd, Painless Childbirth
Co., 1915], p. 143.)
thingmedicine had to offer,and working-classwomen who wanted simple relieffromchildbed suffering,theywere all united bytheircommon
desire to make childbirthsaferand easier forwomen.
Van Hoosen emerged as the mostavid advocate of twilightsleep in
the Midwest. She received her M.D. from the Universityof Michigan
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
156
Leavitt
TwilightSleep
Medical School and worked at the New England Hospital for Women
and Children in Boston before settingup practice in Chicago in 1892.
Her enthusiasm for the method came from two sources: her strong
commitmentto the best in obstetricalcare and her equally strongcommitmentto women's rights.Through her use of scopolamine in surgery
and obstetrics,she became convinced thattwilightsleep offeredwomen
a "returnof more physiologicalbirths"at the same timethatit increased
the efficiencyof physicians,giving them "complete control of everything."28 She guided many other physicians to the twilight sleep
method.29In termsof safetyand comfort,she could not imagine a better
method of birthing.
Increasingly,doctors began to deliver twilightsleep babies. Some
traveled to Germanyto learn the Freiburgtechnique and subsequently
offeredit to both privateand charitypatients.30A few physicianseven
became enthusiasticabout the possibilitiesof twilightsleep. "If the male
had to endure this suffering,"said Dr. James Harrar of New York, "I
thinkhe would resortveryprecipitouslyto somethingthatmightrelieve
the . .. pain."31 Dr. W. Francis B. Wakefield of California went even
further,declaring "I would just as soon consider performinga surgical
operation withoutan anestheticas conducting a labor withoutscopolamin amnesia. Skillfullyadministered the best interest of both the
motherand the child are advanced byitsuse."32Anotherphysicianlisted
its advantages: painless labor, reduction of subsequent "nerve exhaustion that comes after a prolonged hard labor," better milk secretion,
fewer cervical and perineal lacerations, fewer forcep deliveries, less
strain on the heart, and a "better race for future generations" since
upper-class women would be more likelyto have babies if theycould
have them painlessly.33There was also, it was claimed, an "advantage to
28. Bertha Van Hoosen, PetticoatSurgeon(Chicago: Pellegrini& Cudahy, 1947), pp.
282-82.
29. See, e.g., Bertha Van Hoosen, "A Fixed Dosage in Scopalamine-Morphine
Anaesthesia," Woman'sMedical Journal 26 (1916): 57-58; and "Twilight Sleep in the
Home," ibid., p. 132.
30. For early American trials,see William H. Wellington Knipe, "'Twilight Sleep'
from the Hospital Viewpoint," Modern Hospital 2 (1914): 250-51; A. M. Hilkowich,
"Further Observationson Scopalamine-NarcophinAnesthesiaduring Labor withReport
of Two Hundred (200) Cases," AmericanMedicine20 (1914): 786-94; William H. WelAmerican
lington Knipe, "The Freiburg Method of Dammerschlaf or Twilight Sleep,"
McPherson,
and
Ross
A.
Harrar
and
70
Obstetrics
364-71;
(1914):
James
Journal of
Association
of
oftheAmerican
"Scopolamine-NarcophinSeminarcosisin Labor," Transactions
27 (1914): 372-89.
and Gynecologists
Obstetricians
31. Quoted duringdiscussionof Rongy,Harrar, and McPherson papers, Transactions
27 (1914): 389.
and Gynecologists
the
ofObstetricians
of AmericanAssociation
Journalof
32. W. Francis B. Wakefield,"Scopolamine Amnesia in Labor," American
71 (1915): 428. For more of thiskind of enthusiasm,see also Elizabeth R. Miner,
Obstetrics
"Letter and Report of Nineteen Cases in Which 'Twilight' Was Used," Woman'sMedical
Journal26 (1916): 131.
Medicine21 (1915): 40-41.
33. Ralph M. Beach, "TwilightSleep," American
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Signs
Autumn1980
157
the child: To give it a betterchance for life at the time of delivery;a
betterchance to have breast-feeding;a betterchance to have a strong,
normal mother."34
Despite the energyand enthusiasmof the twilightsleep advocates,
many American doctors resistedthe technique. They lashed out against
the "pseudo-scientificrubbish" and the "quackish hocus-pocus" published in McClure's35and simplyrefusedto be "stampeded by these misguided ladies."36 These physicians did not believe that nonmedical
people should determine therapeutic methods; it was a "question of
medical ethics."37Other physiciansrefused to use scopolamine because
theyfeared itsdangers eitherto the motheror the child. TheJournalof
theAmericanMedical Associationconcluded that "this method has been
thoroughly investigated, tried, and found wanting, because of the
danger connected withit."38
Because the evidence about safetywas mixed, many doctors were
frustratedin theirattemptsto findout whetherscopolamine was harmful or safe for use in obstetrics.Earlier experience with the unstable
formof the drug led some to refuseto tryscopolamine again, although
at least one pharmaceuticalcompany had solved the problem of drug
stabilityby 1914. "The bad and indifferentresultswhich were at first
obtained by the use of these drugs we now know to have been due
entirelyto overdosage and the use of impure and unstable preparations,"concluded one physicianin a reporton his successfulresultswith
1,000 twilightsleep mothersin 1915.39Dr. Van Hoosen had successfully
performed surgeryon 2,000 patientswith the help of scopolamine by
190840 and began using the drug routinelyin deliveries in 1914. She
concluded after 100 consecutive cases that scopolamine, properly administered,"solves the problemsof child-bearing"and is safe formother
and child.41But the medical literaturecontinued to express concern
34. Bertha Van Hoosen, Scopolamine-Morphine
Anaesthesia,p. 101. Some physicians
reportedsuccess using twilightsleep at home, but mostthoughtthe method best suited to
hospital deliveries.
35. Quoted fromtheJournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociationin "Another 'Twilight
Sleep,' " Literary
Digest50 (1915): 187; W. Gillespie,"Analgesicsand Anestheticsin Labor,
Their Indication and Contra-Indications,"OhioMedicalJournal11 (1915): 611.
36. "TwilightSleep Again,"AmericanMedicine21 (1915): 149.
37. "'Twilight Sleep' in the Light of Day," ScientificAmerican 79,
suppl. 2041
(1915): 112. See also theNew YorkTimes(October 20, 1914), p. 12; (November 28, 1914), p.
12; (February5, 1915), p. 10; (February 11, 1915), p. 8.
38. Journalof theAmericanMedical Association(June 6, 1914),
quoted in "'Twilight
Sleeps' and Medical Publicity,"Literary
Digest49 (1914): 60.
39. Ralph M. Beach, "Twilight Sleep: Report of One Thousand Cases," American
71 (1915): 728.
JournalofObstetrics
40. Frederick A. Stratton,"Scopolamine Anesthesia," WisconsinMedicalJournal 8
(1908-9): 27.
41. Van Hoosen, Scopolamine-Morphine
Anaesthesia,
p. 101.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
158
Leavitt
TwilightSleep
about the possible ill effectsof a breathingirregularityin babies whose
mothers had been given scopolamine and morphine late in labor.42
Doctors tryingto understand the evaluation of twilightsleep must have
been confused. In one journal, theyread that the procedure was "too
dangerous to be pursued," while another journal assured them that
scopolamine, when properly used during labor, "has no danger for
either motheror child."43Increasingly,by 1915, medicaljournals published studies thatat least cautiouslyfavored twilightsleep (theJanuary
Medicinepublished nine such articles),44although
1915 issue of American
ran
editorials
warning of the drug's potential dangers
they frequently
and stressingthe need for caution. Practicingphysicians faced a dilemma when pregnant women demanded painless childbirth with
scopolamine.45
While physiciansdebated the desirabilityof using scopolamine in
1914 and 1915, the public, surer of its position,demanded thattwilight
sleep be routinelyavailable to women who wanted it. Hospitals in the
major cities responded to these demands and to physicians'growing
interestin the method by allowing deliveries of babies the Freiburg
way.46In order to gain additional clinical experience, and possiblyin
response to some women's requests,some doctors used twilightsleep in
hospital charitywards. But the technique was most successful in the
specialtywards thereupper- and middle-classpatientsincreasinglygave
birthand hospitalattendantsand facilitieswere available. By May 1915,
McClure'sMagazine's national surveyreported that the use of twilight
42. This condition,called "oligopnea," usually resolved aftera few hours, but it was
it
frighteningto observe, especially for attendantswho had no experience with (Gauss,
"FurtherExperimentsin Dammerschlaf,"p. 302).
7
Journalof Obstetrics
43. See discussion of the Polak paper (n. 14 above) in American
793.
and
Hilkowich,
p.
(1915): 798;
44. AmericanMedicine21 (1915): 24-70.
45. See, e.g., the discussion followingKnipe's paper (n. 30 above) in the American
70 (1914): 1025. For articleswithpositiveconclusions,see JohnOsborn
JournalofObstetrics
Polock, "A Study of TwilightSleep," New YorkMedicalJournal101 (1915): 293; Robert T.
Gillmore,"Scopolamine and Morphine in Obstetricsand Surgery,"New YorkMedicalJournal 102 (1915): 298; William H. WellingtonKnipe, "'Twilight Sleep' fromthe Hospital
American
Viewpoint,"p. 250; W. Francis B. Wakefield,"Scopolamin-Amnesiain Labor,"
71 (1915): 428; Samuel J. Druskinand Nathan Ratnoff,"TwilightSleep
JournalofObstetrics
in Obstetrics-with a Report of 200 Cases," New YorkStateJournalof Medicine15 (1915):
Gynecol152; Charles B. Reed, "A Contributionto the Studyof 'TwilightSleep,' " Surgery,
22 (1916): 656. For a negative conclusion, see Joseph Louis Baer,
ogy and Obstetrics
AmericanMedicalAssociation64
"Scopolamin-MorphinTreatment in Labor,"Journalof the
to dosage and timing,
varied
the
of
actual
The
according
1723-28.
drug
dangers
(1915):
and it is impossibleforthe historianto assess the eventsaccuratelywithoutindividualcase
records. Any drug can be dangerous if misused, and the variabilityin advance about
it.
scopolamine suggeststhatsome disastersoccurred with
46. E.g., see New YorkTimes(August 22, 1914), p. 9; and (September 10, 1914); and
the American hospitalsmentioned in Tracy and Boyd.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Autumn1980
Signs
159
sleep, although stillbattlingfor acceptance, "gains steadily"around the
country.47
Because of the need for expertiseand extra care in administration
of scopolamine, the twilightsleep movementeasily fed into widespread
effortsin the second decade of the twentiethcenturyto upgrade obstetrical practiceand eliminatemidwives.48Both the women who demanded
the technique and the doctors who adopted it applauded the new specialtyof obstetrics.Mary Boyd desired to put an end to home deliveries
when she advocated twilightsleep forcharitypatients:"Justas the village
barber no longer performsoperations, the untrained midwifeof the
neighborhoodwill pass out of existenceunder the effectivecompetition
of free painless wards."49Not only did scopolamine advocates try to
displace midwives,but they also regarded general practitionersas unqualified to deliver twilightsleep babies. "The twentiethcenturywoman
will no more think of having an ordinary practitionerattend her in
childbed at her own home," said two supporters, "she will go to a
[twilightsleep] hospital as a matterof course."50Specialistsagreed that
"the method is not adapted for the general practitioner,but should be
practiced only by those who devote themselvesto obstetrics."51Eliza
Taylor Ransom wentso faras to recommendthe passage of a federallaw
forbidding"anyone administeringscopolamine withouta course of instructionand a special license."52
Some obstetriciansused this issue to discredit their general practitionercolleagues and the midwiveswho stilldeliveredlarge numbersof
America'sbabies. Anotherfactorthatmighthave pushed obstetriciansto
support twilightsleep was thatbirthsunder scopolamine could be managed more completelyby the physician.As one succinctlyput it, anesthesia gave "absolute controlover your patientat all stagesof the game.
... You are 'boss.' "53 Physicians'timeat the bedside could even be used
forother pursuits."I catch up on myreading and writing,"testifiedone
practitioner,"I am never harassed by relativeswho wantme to tell them
things."54
47. Anna Steele Richardson's surveywas reported in the New YorkTimes(May 10,
1915), p. 24.
48. Litoff(n. 3 above), pp. 69-70.
49. Mary Boyd, "The Storyof Dammerschlaf,"Survey33 (1914): 129. See the same
statementin Boyd and Tracy, p. 69.
50. Constance Leupp and BurtonJ. Hendrick,"Twilight
Sleep in America,"McClure's
Magazine 44 (1915): 172-73. The argumentabout expertiseappeared repeatedly(see, e.g.,
William H. W. Knipe, "The Truth about Twilight Sleep," Delineator 85
[1914]: 4).
Twilightsleep women were aware that theirswas an expensive demand. They expected
the cost of physician-attendedchildbirthto jump from
to eighty-five
dollars
twenty-five
(Tracy and Boyd, p. 180).
51. Druskin and Ratnoff,p. 1520.
52. New YorkTimes(April 30, 1915). p. 8.
53. Quoted fromtheNew OrleansMedicaland SurgicalJournalin Miller(n. 1 above), p.
Van Hoosen, Petticoat
4.
282.
54. Van Hoosen, PetticoatSurgeon,
Surgeon,p.
p. 282.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
160
Leavitt
TwilightSleep
TheIssue ofControl
How do we explain the seeming contradictionsin this episode in
medical history?Why did women demand to undergo a process which
manyphysiciansdeemed riskyand in whichparturientslostself-control?
Why did some physiciansresista process thatwould have given women
an easier birthingexperience and would have reinforced physicians'
controlover childbirthin a hospitalenvironment?
Several factorscontributedto the open tensions about the use of
twilightsleep. One was safety.Many physiciansrejected scopolamine
because they did not have access to facilitieslike those at the Mary
Thompson Hospital or because theybelieved the drug too riskyunder
any circumstances.Because of the variabilityamong physicians'use of
scopolamine and thecontradictoryevidence in the professionaljournals,
we know that safetywas a guiding motivationof manyphysicians.However, this is not enough to explain physicianreluctance since so many
doctors administered other drugs during labor despite questionable
safetyreports.55Differingperceptionsabout pain during childbirthalso
contributedto the intensityof feelingabout twilightsleep in 1914 and
1915. Althoughmanyphysiciansbelieved thatwomen's "extremelydelicate nervous sensibilities"needed relief,others were reluctantto interferewiththe natural process of childbirth.One anti-twilight
sleep physician argued, "when we reflectthat we are dealing with a perfectly
healthy individual, and an organ engaged in a purely physiological
function... I fail to see the necessityof institutingsuch a measure in a
normal labor and attempt[ing]to bridge the parturientwoman over this
physiological process in a semi-conscious condition."56Women perceived, too, that some physiciansused anesthesia only for "suffering
when it becomes a serious impedimentto the birthprocess."57However,
women who had sufferedgreatly,or whose friendshad sufferedgreatly,
activelysought relief from their "physiological"births: They thought
pain in itselfa hindrance to a successfulchildbirthexperience and "demanded" that their physicians provide them with more positive, less
painful,experiences in the future.58
Both sides in the twilightsleep debate grappled witha thirdimportant question: whetherthe women or the attendantsshould determine
55. Fiftypercent of 100 general practitionerssurveyed in rural districtsand small
towns in Wisconsin indicated that they used ergot during labor, although its use was
blamed for"a verylarge per cent of necessaryoperations for repair of injuriesto the floor
and pelvic organs of the female patient"(Ford [n. 4 above], p. 257).
56. Dr. Francis Reder, during a discussion of Rongy, Harrar, and MacPherson pa27 (1914): 386.
and Gynecologists
Association
ofObstetricians
oftheAmerican
pers, Transactions
57. Tracy and Boyd, p. 149.
58. For physicians'perceptionsof "demanding" women, see, e.g., the discussion folAssociation
ofObstetricians
oftheAmerican
lowingthe Rongy and Harrar papers, Transactions
27 (1914): 382-83.
and Gynecologists
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Signs
Autumn1980
161
and control the birthingprocess.59The women who demanded that
doctorsput themto sleep were partiallyblind to the safetyissue because
the issue of control(over pain, bodilyfunction,decision making) was so
importantto them. Control became importantwhen doctors refused to
allow women "to receivethe same benefitsfromthisgreatdiscoverythat
their sistersabroad are getting."60Twilightsleep advocates demanded
their right to decide how they would have their children. Tracy and
Boyd articulated this issue: "Women took their doctor's word before.
They are now beginning to believe ... that the use of painlessness
should be at theirdiscretion."61Although women were out of control
during twilightsleep births-unconscious and needing crib-bedsor constantattentionto restraintheirwild movements-this loss of controlwas
less importantto them than theirdeterminationto controlthe decision
about what kind of labor and deliverythey would have. Hanna Rion,
whose influential book and articles had garnered support for the
method,wrote:
In the old-fashioneddays when women were merelytheblindfolded
guardians of the power of child-bearing,theyhad no choice but to
trustthemselveswithoutquestion in the hands of the all-wisephysician, but thatday is past and willreturnno more. Women have torn
away the bandages of false modesty;theyare no longer ashamed of
their bodies; theywant to know all the wondrous workingsof nature, and theydemand that theybe taught how best to safeguard
themselvesas wives and mothers.When it comes to the supreme
functionof childbearing every woman should certainlyhave the
choice of sayinghowshe willhave her child.62
Twilightsleep women wanted to controltheirown birthsby choosing to
go to sleep. They were not succumbingto physiciansor technologybut
were, theythought,demanding the rightto control theirown birthing
experiences.
This feministemphasis on controlover decision makingappears in
the writingsand lectures of the twilightsleep movement; its followers
sought simple relief from pain.63 Many leaders were active suffragists
59. Other contributingfactorscannot be developed here. Growing professionalization and specialization with medicine produced tensions among groups of doctors that
surfaced during this debate. The method's German "origins" invalidated it with many
Americansduring the war years. My emphasis here on the issue of controlis not meant to
minimizethese and other factors.However, because others,especiallyLawrence Miller(n.
1 above) have explored the general outlines,I have focused on the previouslyunanalyzed
question of decision-makingpower. Its importance,I think,is indicatedby the intensityin
the women's argumentson thisissue.
60. Letter from"Ex-Medicus" in New YorkTimes(November 28, 1914), p. 12.
61. Tracy and Boyd, p. 147 (emphasis in original).
62. Rion (n. 16 above), p. 47.
63. Tracy and Boyd claimed "four to fivemillion"twilightsleep followers,
obviously
an exaggeration(p. 144).
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
162
Leavitt
TwilightSleep
whose commitmentto twilightsleep was rooted in theirbeliefin women's
rights.64Althoughthese activistsagreed withmost physiciansthatbirth
should increasinglybe the domain of the obstetriciansand thatwomen
should not sufferunnecessarily,theydisagreed vehementlyabout who
should decide what the birthingwoman's experience would be. They
clearlyand adamantlywanted women to have the rightto decide their
own method of birthing.65
In the face of advancing obstetricaltechnology,many physicians
wanted to retain theirtraditionalprofessionalrightand duty to decide
therapy on the basis of theirjudgment about the medical indications.
They refused to be "dragooned" into "indiscriminateadoption" of a
procedure that theythemselvesdid not choose.66Even the doctors who
supported twilightsleep believed thatin the finalanalysis,the method of
childbirthwas "a question for the attendingman and not the patientto
decide."67It was principallythisquestion of power over decision making
thatseparated the movement'sproponentsfromitsopponents.
TheDecline
In the very successes of the twilightsleep movementlay the seeds
for itsdemise. Pressured by the clubwomen'sassociationsand theirown
pregnant patients,doctors who had not been trained in the Freiburg
method delivered babies with scopolamine. There was an enormous
variationin the use of the drug, its timingthroughlabor, the conditions
in which the woman labored, and the watchfulnessof attendants.As its
advocates had feared, problems emerged when scopolamine was not
properly monitoredin a hospital setting.Following reportsof adverse
effectson the newborn,the drug fellinto ill repute, and some hospitals
that had been among the first to use it stopped administering it
routinely.68
Those physicianswho continued to advocate twilightsleep believed
thataccidentswere due to misuse of the Freiburgmethod and not to the
drug itself.Commentingon its discontinuationat Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago, Dr. Bertha Van Hoosen noted that"it is... probable that
thisadverse reportdemonstratesnothingmore than the inexperienceof
the people using thisanesthetic."69Dr. Ralph Beach agreed that"thereis
no doubt thatall of the bad resultswhichhave been reporteddue to this
64.
65.
above).
66.
67.
See, e.g., New YorkTimes(November 28, 1914), p. 12.
See esp. Tracy and Boyd, Rion, Ransom (n. 21 above), and Van Hoosen (n. 10
New YorkTimes(September 26, 1914), p. 10.
Dr. ArthurJ.Booker in his remarksdefendingVan Hoosen's use of scopolamine,
Anaesthesia,
p. 12.
quoted in Van Hoosen, Scopolamine-Morphine
68. New YorkTimes(April 24, 1915), p. 10; (April 30, 1915), p. 8; (May 29, 1915), p.
20; (August 25, 1915), p. 10; (August 16, 1916), p. 7.
69. Van Hoosen, "A Fixed Dosage" (n. 29 above), p. 57.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Signs
Autumn1980
163
method,are due to an impropertechnic,or the administrationof unstable preparations."70Simultaneously,in 1915, some hospitalsexpanded
theirobstetricservicesto offertwilightsleep, and others began cutting
back its use. Eitherbecause theyjudged the drug dangerous or because
they did not use it correctly,some hospitals found the method too
troublesome to administer on a routine basis to all patients. Most
reached a compromiseand continued to use scopolamine during labor's
firststage (when it was deemed safe), thus preemptingtheir patients'
protestswithoutcompromisingtheirmedical beliefs.A second inhibitory
factorappeared in August 1915 when Mrs. Francis X. Carmody,one of
the country'sleading exponents of twilightsleep, died during childbirth
at Long Island College Hospital in New York. Althoughdoctorsand her
husband insisted that her death was unrelated to scopolamine, it
nonethelessharmed the movement.7'Mrs. Carmody's neighbor started
a new movementto oppose twilightsleep, and women became more alert
to the question of safetythan theyhad been.72Doctors and some former
of
twilightsleep advocates,emphasizingtheissues of safetyand difficulty
other
methods
of
administration,began exploring
achieving painless
childbirth.73
The obstetricliteratureafter 1915 indicates that twilightsleep did
not die in that year. The women's movementmay have failed to make
scopalamine routinelyavailable to all laboringwomen, but it succeeded
in making the concept of painless childbirthmore acceptable and in
adding scopolamine to the obstetricpharmacopoeia. In fact,obstetricians continued to use scopolamine into the 1960s during the firststage
of hospital births.74The use of anesthesia (including scopolamine) in
childbirthgrewin the yearsafter1915, since women,aware of the possibilityof painlessness,continued to want "shorterand less painful parturition"and since physiciansfelt they could disregard these desires
"onlyat great riskto [their]own practice."75
The attemptby a group of women, including some feminists,to
control their birthingexperiences backfired.The medical profession
retained the choice of birthprocedures and perhaps gained additional
70. Beach (n. 33 above), p. 43.
71. New YorkTimes(August 24, 1915), p. 7.
72. Ibid. (August 31, 1915), p. 5.
73. See, e.g., Frank W. Lynch,"NitrousOxide Gas Analgesia in
Obstetrics,"Journal
of
theAmericanMedicalAssociation
64 (1915): 813.
74. See, e.g., Henry Schwarz, "Painless Childbirthand the Safe Conduct of Labor,"
American
and DiseasesofWomenand Children79 (1919): 46-63; and W. C.
JournalofObstetrics
Danforthand C. Henry Davis, "ObstetricAnalgesia and Anesthesia,"Journal
oftheAmerican
MedicalAssociation
81 (1923): 1090-96.
75. See the assessment of anesthesia used in childbirthin New York
Academy of
Medicine Committee on Public Health Relations,MaternalMortality
in New YorkCity:A
Studyofall PuerperalDeaths1930-1932 (New York: CommonwealthFund, 1933), p. 113;
see also JoyceAntlerand Daniel M. Fox, "Movement toward a Safe
Maternity:Physician
Accountabilityin New York City,1915-1940," BulletinoftheHistoryofMedicine50 (1976):
569-95.
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
164
Leavitt
TwilightSleep
control as a resultof this episode. Partial acceptance by the profession
quieted the lay revolt,and women lostthe power theyhad sought. Ironically,by encouraging women to go to sleep during theirdeliveries,the
twilightsleep movementhelped to distance women from their bodies.
Put to sleep with a varietyof drugs, most parturientwomen from the
1920s to the 1960s did not experience one of theirbodies' mostpowerful
actions and thus lost touch with their own physical potential.76The
twilightsleep movementhelped change the definitionof birthingfroma
natural home event, as it was in the nineteenthcentury,to an illness
requiringhospitalizationand physicianattendance. Parturientfeminists
today, seeking fullyto experience childbirth,paradoxicallymust fighta
traditionof drugged, hospital-controlledbirths,itselfthe partial result
of a struggleto increase women's controlover theirbodies.
and Women'sStudiesProgram
HistoryofMedicineDepartment
ofWisconsin-Madison
University
76. The legacy for the parent-infantbond and for subsequent child development is
explored in M. H. Klaus and J. H. Kennell,MaternalInfantBonding:The Impactof Early
(St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co., 1976). For a feminist
Separationor Loss on FamilyDevelopment
perspective on women's missing their deliveries, see Adrienne Rich, Of WomanBorn:
as Experience
and Institution
Motherhood
(New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1976).
This content downloaded from 199.36.244.11 on Thu, 24 Oct 2013 18:07:26 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions