Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education
Author(s): Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb
Source: Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Jun., 2005), pp. 193-212
Published by: Academy of Management
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®Academy of Management Learning & Education. 2005, Vol. 4, No. 2, 193-212.
LearningStyles and Learning
Spaces: EnhancingExperiential
Learningin HigherEducation
ALICE Y. KOLB
Experience-BasedLearningSystems
DAVID A. KOLB
Case WesternReserveUniversity
Drawingon thefoundationaltheoriesofJohnDewey and KurtLewin,we examine recent
developmentsin theoryand researchon experientiallearningand explorehow thiswork
can enhance experientiallearningin highereducation.We introducetheconceptof
forunderstandingtheinterfacebetweenstudentlearning
learningspace as a framework
learningenvironmentWe illustratethe use of thelearning
stylesand theinstitutional
in threecase studiesoflongitudinalinstitutional
developmentFinally,
space framework
we presentprinciplesforthe enhancementofexperientiallearningin highereducation
the educational
and suggesthow experientiallearningcan be applied throughout
environment
developmentprograms,includinglongitudinaloutcome
by institutional
assessment curriculumdevelopmentstudentdevelopmentand facultydevelopment
tools and techniquesto providelearnerswithexperiencesfromwhichtheycan learn. Othershave
used the termto describe learningthatis a mindless recording of experience. Yet experiential
learning is above all a philosophyof education
based on what Dewey (1938)called a "theoryof
experience."He argued thatwhile traditionaleducation had littleneed fortheorysince practice
thenew experiential
was determinedby tradition,
approach to education needed a sound theoryof
experienceto guide its conduct.In this essay we
examine the theoryofexperientiallearning(Kolb,
1984) and related research to explore how this
knowledge can be used to enhance learning in
highereducation.
We begin witha briefsummaryof experiential
learningtheory(ELT) and an overviewof current
researchbased on the theory.This is followedby
theintroduction
oftwonew developmentsin ELT,a
in theassessmentofexperientiallearnrefinement
(LSI)
ing stylesusing the LearningStyleInventory
and the introductionof the concept of learning
forunderstandingtheinterspace as a framework
face betweenstudentlearningstylesand theeducational learning environmentbased on Lewin's
concept of life space. Use of the learning space
framework
is illustratedin case studiesoflongitu-
a theoryofex"(Thereis a) need offorming
that
education
in
order
may be inperience
the
basis of
conducted
upon
telligently
"-John
Dewey
experience.
so practicalas a goodtheory"
"Thereis nothing
- KurtLewin
to improvehighereducation,includRecentefforts
from
the National Research Council
ing reports
Brown,& Cocking2000),the American
(Bransford,
PsychologicalAssociation(1997),and a numberof
otherscholars(Baxter-Magolda,1999;Boyatzis,Cowen,& Kolb 1995;Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs2002;
and Associates,
King,2003;Light,2001;Mentkowski
2000; Zull 2002) have focused on improvingthe
learningprocessin educationthroughtheapplication of research fromwhat has been called "the
new science oflearning"(Branford,
Brown,& Cockis focused
of
this
research
stream
One
2000).
ing,
on the conceptof experientiallearning.Experiential learning is oftenmisunderstoodas a set of
We thankJamesBailey,Sandy Bell, RichardBoyatzis,David
Justice,D. ChristopherKayes, Tony Lingham,Charalampos
RonaldSims,BarrySheckley,YoMainemelis,VerenaMurphy,
shi Yamazaki,and JamesZull fortheirhelpfulfeedbackon this
manuscript.
193
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^94
AcademyofManagementLearning& Education
June
periencesintoexistingconceptsand accommodatingexistingconceptstonewexperience.
is theprocessofcreating
6.Learning
knowledge.
ELT proposesa constructivist
theoryof learning
wherebysocial knowledgeis created and recreatedin thepersonalknowledgeofthelearner.
model
tothe"transmission"
Thisstandsincontrast
on whichmuchcurrenteducationalpracticeis
fixedideas are transmitbased,wherepreexisting
tedtothelearner.
ELT defineslearningas "theprocesswhereby
thetransformation
knowledgeis createdthrough
thecombiofexperience.
Knowledgeresultsfrom
nationofgraspingand transforming
experience"
twodialec(Kolb,1984:41).TheELTmodelportrays
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY
of
modes
related
experience
grasping
tically
ConcreteExperience
drawson theworkof
(CE) and Abstract
ConceptuExperiential
learningtheory
related
and
two
alization
who
20th
scholars
(AC)
dialectically
prominent century
gave experi- Reflective
Obence a centralrole in theirtheoriesof human modesoftransforming
experience
Active
and
servation
and
(AE).
(RO)
John
Experimentation
learning
Dewey,
developmentnotably
KurtLewin,JeanPiaget,WilliamJames,
CarlJung, Experiential
learningis a processofconstructing
- todevelopa
that
PauloFreire,
CarlRogersand others
knowledge involvesa creativetensionamong
toconholisticmodeloftheexperiential
learningprocess thefourlearningmodesthatis responsive
as an
and a multilinear
model of adult development textualdemands.Thisprocessis portrayed
is builton sixpropositions idealized learningcycle or spiral where the
(Kolb,1984).Thetheory
relearner"touchesall thebases"- experiencing,
thatare sharedbythesescholars.
in
a
recursive
and
1.Learning
is bestconceivedas a process,notin
proacting
thinking,
flecting,
To improve
termsofoutcomes.
learningin higher cess thatis responsiveto the learningsituation
orconcrete
and whatis beinglearned.Immediate
focusshouldbe on engagtheprimary
education,
and reobservations
for
the
basis
are
their
enhances
students
in
a
that
best
experiences
ing
process
and
assimilated
are
reflections
These
flections.
on
the
feedback
a
that
includes
learning process
distilledintoabstractconceptsfromwhichnew
As Dewey
effectiveness
of theirlearningefforts.
foractioncan be drawn.Theseimplimustbe conceivedas a connotes,"[E]ducation
implications
be
can
cations
.
.
.
the
reconstruction
of
activelytestedand serveas guides
protinuing
experience:
In TheArtofChangin creatingnewexperiences.
cess and goal ofeducationare one and thesame
the
Brain:
the
1897:
79).
byExploring
Teaching
Enriching
ing
thing"(Dewey
and
a
of
is
best
Zull,
2. All learningis relearning.
James
biologist
Biology Learning,
Learning
Centerfor
ofCWRU'sUniversity
director
facilitated
founding
by a processthatdrawsout the students'beliefsand ideas abouta topicso thatthey Innovationin Teachingand Education(UCITE),
sees a link betweenELT and neurosciencerewithnew,
can be examined,
tested,and integrated
thatthisprocessofexperiential
ideas.
morerefined
search,suggesting
of conflicts learningis relatedtotheprocessofbrainfunction3. Learningrequiresthe resolution
betweendialecticallyopposedmodesofadaptaing(as shownin Fig. 1).
and distionto the world.Conflict,
differences,
thatconillustrates
Putintowords,thefigure
are whatdrivethelearningprocess.In
agreement
thesensory
creteexperiencescomethrough
theprocessoflearningone is calledupontomove
involvestheinobservation
reflective
backand forth
betweenopposingmodesofrefleccortex,
newabthe
at
cortex
back,
tionand actionand feelingand thinking.
creating
tegrative
stractconceptsoccursin thefrontal
4. Learningis a holisticprocessofadaptationto
integrathe
involves
and
active
tive
theworld.Notjusttheresultofcognition,
cortex,
testing
learning
the
In
other
brain.
motor
total
of
the
words,
involvestheintegrated
cycle
learning
perfunctioning
of the brain(Zull
arises fromthe structure
and behaving.
son- thinking,
feeling,
perceiving,
2002:18-19).
transactions
5. Learningresultsfromsynergetic
In Pibetweenthe personand the environment.
Theconceptoflearningstyledescribesindividoccurs
equilibration
through
aget'sterms,
learning
in learningbased on thelearner's
ual differences
newexofthedialecticprocessesofassimilating
dinal institutional
in threediverse
development
in
the
ClevelandInstieducation,
programs higher
tuteofArt,theCase WesternReserveUniversity
and the Case Weatherundergraduate
program,
head School of ManagementMBAprogram.Finally,we presentprinciplesfortheenhancement
ofexperiential
learningin highereducationand
how
suggest
learningcan be applied
experiential
the
environment
educational
by instithroughout
include
tutional
that
longidevelopment
programs
develtudinaloutcomeassessment,curriculum
opment, student development,and faculty
development.
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Kolb and Kolb
2005
195
Active
Premotor/-^^
^T
y^
*\
^^
V
and /
1 Sensory
W
^
j^XFrontal
J
and
Concrete
motor/
/
J
^J^^^.
Abstract
/
^/
integrateexperience
^^f
^postsensory^X^^"
cortex
(
hypotheses~"^^\
J*^'
)
)
I
^^^^^^^^
Reflective y^^^^
observation
FIGURE 1
The ExperientialLearningCycle and Regions ofthe Cerebral Cortex.Note.Reprintedwithpermission
from(Zull 2002).
preferenceforemployingdifferent
phases of the
of
Because
our
learning cycle.
hereditaryequipment,our particularlife experiences,and the demands of our presentenvironment,
we develop a
of
the
fourlearning
preferred
way choosingamong
modes.We resolvetheconflictbetweenbeing concreteor abstractand between being active or reflectivein patterned,characteristicways.
ELTas definedbyKolbpositsthatlearningis the
major determinantof human development,and
how individuals learn shapes the course of their
personal development.His previousresearchhas
shownthatlearningstylesare influencedby personality type,educational specialization, career
choice,and currentjob role and tasks (Kolb,1984).
Yamazaki (2002,2003)has recentlyidentifiedcultural influencesas well. The ELT developmental
model (Kolb, 1984)definesthreestages: (1) acquisition,frombirthto adolescence, wherebasic abilities and cognitivestructuresdevelop; (2) specialization,fromformalschooling throughthe early
work and personal experiences of adulthood,
where social, educational, and organizational
socialization forcesshape the developmentof a
particular,specialized learningstyle;and (3) integration in midcareerand later life, where nondominantmodesoflearningare expressedin work
and personal life. Development throughthese
stages is characterizedby increasingcomplexity
and relativismin adapting to the world and by
increased integrationof the dialectic conflictsbetweenAC and CE and AE and RO. Developmentis
conceivedas multilinear,
based on an individual's
particularlearning style and life path- developof RO
mentof CE increases affectivecomplexity,
of AC increases
increases perceptualcomplexity,
symboliccomplexity,and of AE increases behavioral complexity.
RESEARCH ON EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
THEORY
ELT was developed followingLewin's plan forthe
creationof scientificknowledgeby conceptualizing phenomena throughformal,explicit,testable
theory.In Lewin's approach,"beforea systemcan
be fullyusefultheconceptsin ithave tobe defined
ofboththe
in a way that(1) permitsthe treatment
of
and
phenomqualitative
quantitativeaspects
ena in a single system,(2) adequately represents
the conditional-genetic(or causal) attributesof
phenomena,(3) facilitatesthemeasurement(oropand (4) alofthese attributes,
erationaldefinition)
lows both generalizationto universal laws and
concretetreatmentof the individual case" (Cartwright,1951:ix). A theorydeveloped by this proforstimulating
cess can be a powerfulinstrument
and focusingscholarlyresearchconversation.
Since its firststatementin 1971(Kolb,1971;Kolb,
Rubin,& Mclntyre,1971),therehave been many
studies using ELT to advance thetheoryand practice ofexperientiallearning.The July2005update
of the ExperientialLearningTheoryBibliography
(Kolb & Kolb,2005)includes 1876entries.Because
ELT is a holistictheoryof learningthatidentifies
learning style differencesamong differentaca-
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196
AcademyofManagementLearning& Education
to see that
demicspecialties,it is notsurprising
ELTresearchis highlyinterdisciplinary,
addressand
in
educational
issues
many
ing learning
fields.Ananalysisofthe 1004entriesin the 1999
& Mainemelis,
(Kolb,Boyatzis,
2001)
bibliography
shows207studiesin management,
430in educascience,101inpsychology,
tion,104ininformation
22inaccounting
and
72inmedicine,
63innursing,
5 in law.About55%ofthisresearchhas appeared
inrefereed
20%indoctoraldisserjournalarticles,
in
book
and 15%
books
and
10%
tations,
chapters,
research
and
in conference
proceedings,
reports,
othervenues.
reviewsof
Therehave beentwocomprehensive
and
one
ELT
one
the
literature, qualitative
quantireviewedthe
tative.In 1991Hickcoxextensively
anatheoretical
originsofELT and qualitatively
lyzed81studiesthatfocusedon theapplicationof
theELTmodelas wellas on theapplicationofthe
and busiconceptoflearningstylein accounting
medicalproness education,
helpingprofessions,
educationand teacheredfessions,
postsecondary
ucation.She concludedthatoverall61.7%of the
studiessupported
ELT,16.1%showedmixedsupport,and 22.2%did notsupportELT.In 1994Iliff
LSI
of101quantitative
a meta-analysis
conducted
and 624arti275dissertations
studiesculledfrom
and quanticles thatwerequalitative,
theoretical,
tativestudiesofELTand theKolbLearningStyle
(LSI; Kolb 1971,1985,1999a;see also
Inventory
Hickox,1991).Ilifffoundthat49 studiesshowed
strongsupportfortheLSI,40 showedmixedsupAbouthalf
and 12studiesshowednosupport.
port,
data on the
sufficient
ofthe 101studiesreported
sizes bywayofmetaLSI scales tocomputeeffect
correlations
that
analysis.Moststudiesreported
fellin the.2 to .5 rangefortheLSI scales. In conofthese
clusionIliff
suggestedthatthemagnitude
is notsufficient
tomeetstandardsofprestatistics
whilenotingthattheLSI was not
dictivevalidity,
testlike
tobe a predictive
intended
psychological
develIQ, GRE,or GMAT.The LSI was originally
exerciseand a means
oped as a self-assessment
validationofELT.Judged
forconstruct
bythestanELT has been widely
dardsofconstruct
validity,
forlearningcenacceptedas a usefulframework
terededucationalinnovation,
includinginstrucand lifetionaldesign,curriculum
development,
long learning. Academic field and job
studiesviewedas a wholealso show
classification
withtheELTstrucofresultsconsistent
a pattern
tureofknowledge
theory.
Mostofthedebateand critiquein theELT/LSI
literature
has centeredon thepsychometric
propertiesoftheLSI. Resultsfromthisresearchhave
beenofgreatvalue in revisingtheLSI in 1985and
June
again in 1999.Recentcritiquehas been morefocusedonthetheory
thantheinstrument
examining
the intellectualoriginsand underlying
assumptionsofELTfromwhatmightbe called a critical
wherethe theoryis seen as
theoryperspective,
and technological
individualistic,
cognitivist,
(e.g.,
Vince,1998;Holman,Pavlica,& Thorpe,1997;Hopkins,1993).Kayes (2002)has reviewedtheseand
othercriticsofELTand offered
his owncritiqueof
the critics.He suggeststhatcriticshave overlookedtheroleofVygotsky's
social-constructivist
in theELTtheory
ofdevelopment
learningtheory
and the role of personalknowledgeand social
knowledgein experiential
learning.He proposes
an extension
ofELTbased onLacan'spoststructuralistanalysisthatelaboratesthefracture
between
personaland social knowledgeand therolethat
languageplaysin shapingexperience.
LEARNING STYLE ASSESSMENT
Muchoftheresearchon ELT has focusedon the
conceptoflearningstyleusingtheLearningStyle
(LSI)toassess individuallearningstyles
Inventory
see also Hickox,
(Kolb1971,1999a,b;
1991).
Although
individualstestedon theLSI showmanydifferent
patternsofscores,previousresearchwiththeinstrument
has identified
fourlearningstylesthat
are associatedwithdifferent
approachestolearnand acing:diverging,
assimilating,
converging,
The following
ofthefour
commodating.
summary
basic learningstylesis based on bothresearch
and clinicalobservation
of thesepatternsofLSI
scores(Kolb,1984,1999a).
An individualwithdiverging
stylehas CE and
RO as dominantlearningabilities.People with
thislearningstyleare best at viewingconcrete
from
situations
manydifferent
pointsofview.The
becausea personwith
styleis labeled"diverging"
itperforms
betterin situations
thatcall forgenerationofideas,suchas a "brainstorming"
session.
Peoplewitha diverging
learningstylehavebroad
culturalinterests
and like to gatherinformation.
inpeople,tendtobe imaginaTheyare interested
tiveand emotional,
have broadculturalinterests,
and tendtospecializein thearts.In formal
learningsituations,
peoplewiththediverging
styleprefertoworkin groups,tolistenwithan openmind,
and toreceivepersonalized
feedback.
Anindividualwithan assimilating
stylehas AC
and RO as dominantlearningabilities.People
withthislearningstyleare bestat understanding
a wide rangeof information
and puttingit into
Individualswithan assimiconcise,logicalform.
latingstyleare less focusedon peopleand more
in ideas and abstractconcepts.Generinterested
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2005
Kolb and Kolb
ally, people withthis stylefindit moreimportant
thata theoryhave logical soundness than practical value. The assimilatinglearningstyleis important foreffectivenessin information
and science
careers.In formallearningsituations,people with
thisstylepreferreadings,lectures,exploringanalytical models, and having time to thinkthings
through.
An individual witha convergingstyle has AC
and AE as dominantlearningabilities.People with
this learning style are best at findingpractical
uses forideas and theories.Theyhave the ability
to solve problemsand make decisions based on
findingsolutionstoquestionsorproblems.Individuals with a converginglearning style preferto
deal withtechnicaltasksand problemsratherthan
withsocial and interpersonalissues. These learning skills are importantforeffectivenessin specialist and technologycareers.In formallearning
situations,people withthis stylepreferto experimentwithnew ideas, simulations,laboratoryassignments,and practicalapplications.
An individualwithan accommodatingstylehas
CE and AE as dominantlearningabilities. People
withthis learningstylehave the abilityto learn
fromprimarily"hands-on"experience.Theyenjoy
carryingout plans and involvingthemselves in
new and challengingexperiences.Theirtendency
may be to act on "gut" feelings ratherthan on
logical analysis. In solvingproblems,individuals
withan accommodatinglearningstylerelymore
than on their
heavily on people forinformation
own technicalanalysis. This learningstyleis imin action-oriented
careers
portantforeffectiveness
such as marketingor sales. In formallearningsituations,people withthe accommodatinglearning
stylepreferto workwithothersto get assignments
done,to set goals, to do fieldwork,and to testout
different
approaches to completinga project.
Recenttheoreticaland empiricalworkis showing thatthe originalfourlearningstyles- assimilating, converging,accommodating,and diverging- can be expanded toshowninedistinctstyles.
David Hunt and his associates (Abby,Hunt, &
Weiser,1985;Hunt1987)identifiedfouradditional
learning styles,which they identifiedas Northerner,Easterner,Southerner,and Westerner.The
following descriptions of these styles include
Hunt'sanalysis, which emphasizes the impactof
thestyle'sweakest learningmode on the learner's
learningprocess.
The Northerner
emphasizes feeling (CE) while
balancing acting (AE) and reflecting(RO). The
learningstrengthsof this styleare a capacity for
deep involvementwhile being comfortablein the
outerworldofactionand theinnerworldofreflec-
197
tion."Thispersonhas difficulty
in conceptualizing
or making meaning of experience;consequently,
the cycle runs fromfeelings to reflection(which
remains unconsolidated) to action. The consequence ofthisNortherly
patternis thatthe flowis
discontinuous and the actions are poorly organized since theyare not informedby the foundation ofAC meaning"(Hunt,1987:155).
The Easterneremphasizes reflecting(RO) while
balancing feeling (CE) and thinking(AC). The
learningstrengthsof this styleare a capacity for
deep reflectioninformedby the abilityto be both
feelingorientedand conceptual."Personswithan
Easterlypatternhave troubleputtingplans into
action. Consequently,theyspend muchtimeburied in thought.Because the action is shortcircuited, their thoughtsare about their feelings
ratherthan about theirdirectactions; this imbalanced cycle lacks the rejuvenationprovided by
actions" (Hunt,1987:155).
The Southerneremphasizes thinking(AC) while
balancing acting (AE) and reflecting(RO). The
learning strengthsof this styleare highlydeveloped conceptualand analyticcapabilities thatare
informedboth by reflectionand action. "Persons
witha Southerlypatternare notin touchwiththeir
feelings. They reflecton the mechanics of their
actionswithoutbenefitofemotionalfeedback.The
reflectionmay lead to reformulation
of concepts
but the revisionis mechanical and sterile"(Hunt,
1987:155).
The Westerneremphasizes acting (AE) while
balancing feeling (CE) and thinking(AC). The
learningstrengthsof this style are highlydeveloped action skills thatare informedbothby conceptual analysis and intuitiveexperience."In this
pattern,the Westernergoes directlyfromfeelings
to conceptualizingwithoutsortingouttheconcrete
experience. Consequently,the initial conceptual
framework
is likelyto be unclear,withlittlepossito
correct
it throughreflection"(Hunt,1987:
bility
155).
A "Balancing"learningstylehas been identified
by Mainemelis,Boyatzis,and Kolb (2002)thatintegratesAC and CE and AE and RO. In thisstudywe
employed the Learning Style Inventory(Kolb
1999a),the AdaptiveStyleInventory
(ASI,Boyatzis
& Kolb 1993),and the LearningSkills Profile(LSP,
Boyatzis& Kolb, 1991,1995,1997)to test a fundamentalELT hypothesis:The morebalanced people
are in theirlearning orientationon the LSI, the
on theASI.
greaterwill be theiradaptive flexibility
To assess a balanced LSI profile,we used two
indicatorsof a balanced learning profile,using
absolute LSI scores on the Abstract/Concrete
and
Active/Reflective
dimensions. The results sup-
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AcademyofManagementLearning& Education
^98
portedourhypotheses,
showingthatpeople with
balancedlearningprofilesin bothdimensionsof
theLSI are moreadoptivelyflexiblelearnersas
measuredbytheASI.Therelationship
was stronfor
the
Abstract/Conthe
balanced
on
ger
profile
cretedimension
dimenthantheActive/Reflective
sion.Otherresultsshowedthatindividualswith
level
specializedLSIlearningstyleshavea greater
of skill development
in the commensurate
skill
some
of
the
The
also
LSP.
quadrant
study produced
results.Forexample,althoughwe preunexpected
dictedthatspecializedlearningstyleswouldshow
less adaptiveflexibility
on the ASI, the results
showedthatthisis truefortheabstractlearning
stylesbutnotfortheconcrete
styles.
Theninelearningstylesoutlinedabove can be
definedbyplacingthemonthelearningstyletype
grid(Kolb1999a:6).Insteadofdividingthegridat
the50thpercentiles
oftheLSI normative
distributionsforAC-CE and AE-RO,thenine stylesare
definedby dividingthe two normative
distributionsintothirds.(On the AE-ROdimensionthe
activeregionsare definedby raw scores ^ 12,
whilethe reflective
regionsare definedby raw
scores< -1. On theAC-CE dimensiontheconcreteregionsare definedby< - 1and theabstract
regionsby> 12.(See Fig 2.)
June
of
Thisresearchthatincreasesthe"resolution"
fourtoninepixels
thelearningstyletypegridfrom
of
misconception
mayhelptodeal witha common
to treat
ELTlearningstyles;thatis, thetendency
entities
thefourlearningstylesas fourcategorical
ratherthancontinuouspositionson the dimensionsofAC-CEandAE-RO.Gould(2003)inhislast
aboutthebias in science
bookwritesextensively
Althatarises fromsuch dichotomous
thinking.
emlimit
format
of
the
LSI
the
may
though simple
thereare many
theoretically,
piricalidentification;
these two diidentifiable
along
learningstyles
identiotherdimensions
mensions(nottomention
Elsewhere
fiedby otherlearningstyletheories).
toaddressthisbias:
we have attempted
Whenit is used in the simple,straightfortheLSIusually
ward,andopenwayintended,
and
self-examination
an
provides interesting
discussionthatrecognizesthe uniqueness,
in individualapand variability
complexity
The
to
proaches learning. dangerlies in the
reification
oflearningstylesintofixedtraits,
suchthatlearningstylesbecomestereotypes
used topigeonholeindividualsand theirbehavior(Kolb,1981:290-291).
CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE
NW
ACTIVE
EXPERIMENTATION
NE
N
Feeling-Acting
Feeling
Acting-Reflecting
Accommodating
Northerner
Zm
Fefung
Feeling-Reflecting
Diverging
RefiLg
REFLECTIVE
+ Reflecting Feeling-Thinking
OBSERVATION
Feelmg-Thinking
Acting
Westerner
Thinking
Balancing
Easterner
S
SW
Thinking-Acting
Converging
SE
Thinking-Reflecting
Thinking
Acting-Reflecting
Southerner
Assimilating
ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE2
The Nine-RegionLearningStyleTypeGrid
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2005
Kolb and Kolb
Is learningstylea fixedtraitor dynamicstate?
ELT clearly defines learning style as a dynamic
statearisingfroman individual'spreferential
resolutionof the dual dialectics of experiencing/conceptualizingand acting/reflecting.
The stabilityand enduranceofthese states in
individuals comes not solely fromfixed geofhumanbeneticqualities orcharacteristics
for
that
does
it come from
nor,
matter,
ings:
the stable fixed demands of environmental
circumstances.Rather,stable and enduring
patternsof human individualityarise from
consistentpatternsof transactionbetween
...
the individualand his or herenvironment
The way we process the possibilitiesofeach
new emergingeventdeterminesthe range of
choices and decisions we see. The choices
and decisions we make to some extentdetermine the events we live through,and these
events influenceour futurechoices. Thus,
people create themselvesthroughthe choice
of actual occasions they live through(Kolb
1984:63-64).
Nonetheless,in practice and research there is a
markedtendencyto treatlearningstyleas a fixed
personalitytrait (e.g., Garner,2000). Individuals
oftenreferto themselves and others as though
learningstylewas a fixedcharacteristic:"I have
trouble making decisions because I am a diverger.""He likes to workalone because he is an
assimilator."To emphasize the dynamicnatureof
learning style,the latest version of the LSI has
changed the stylenames fromdivergerto diverging,and so on.
LEARNING SPACE
the complex,dynamicnature
To elaborate further
of learningstyleand its formation
throughtranswe
actions between the person and environment
introducethe conceptof learningspace. The conceptoflearningspace builds on KurtLewin'sfield
theoryand his concept of life space. For Lewin,
are interdependent
bothperson and environment
a
Lewin
translated
intoa mathvariables, concept
ematical formula,B = f(p,e)where behavior is a
As Marrow
functionof person and environment.
life
is
the
total
"the
psychological
space
puts it,
whichthepersonexperiencessubjecenvironment
tively"(1969:35).Lifespace includesall factswhich
have existenceforthe person and excludes those
which do not. It embraces needs, goals, unconscious influences,memories,beliefs,events of a
political,economic,and social nature,and any-
199
thingelse thatmighthave directeffecton behavior.The various factorsin a given lifespace are to
some degree interdependent,
and Lewin strongly
maintainsthatonly the dynamicconceptsof tension and forcecan deal withthese sets ofinterdependentfacts.This is what led himto definepsychological needs as tension systems and their
as vectorstodenotemotopologicalrepresentation
tion.Lewin postulatedthatthe particularorganizationofa person'slifespace was determinedbya
fieldof forces- both internalneeds and external
demands- thatpositionedthe individualin a life
space composed of different
regions.Using maplike representation,the life space could be depicted topologically.Life spaces can vary in a
numberofdimensions,includingextension,differand level of conflict.Lewin
entiation,integration,
introduceda numberofconceptsforanalysis ofthe
lifespace and a person'srelationshipto itthatare
applicable to the studyoflearningspaces, including position, region, locomotion,equilibriumof
forces,positiveand negative valence, barriersin
the personand the world,conflict,
and goal.
Three othertheoreticalframeworksinformthe
ELT conceptof learningspace. UrieBronfrenbrenner's (1977,1979)work on the ecology of human
developmenthas made significantsociological
contributions
to Lewin's life space concept.Bronfrenbrenner
definesthe ecologyoflearning/developmentspaces as a topologicallynested arrangementofstructures,
each containedwithinthenext.
The learner'simmediatesetting,such as a course
or classroom, is called the microsystem,
while
otherconcurrent
in
the
life
such
settings
person's
as othercourses,thedorm,orfamilyare referred
to
as the mesosystem.The exosysfemencompasses
the formaland informalsocial structuresthatinfluencetheperson'simmediateenvironment,
such
as institutionalpolicies and proceduresand camrefersto the
pus culture.Finally,themacrosystem
institutional
and
values of
overarching
patterns
the wider culture,such as the culturalvalues favoringabstract knowledgeover practical knowledge, thatinfluenceactorsin theperson'simmediate microsystemand mesosystem.This theory
provides a frameworkforanalysis of the social
systemfactorsthatinfluencelearners'experience
oftheirlearningspaces.
Anotherimportantcontribution
to the learning
is
situated
space concept
learningtheory(Lave &
Like
situated
ELT,
Wenger 1991).
learning theory
draws on Vygot
sky's(1978)activitytheoryofsocial
cognitionfora conceptionofsocial knowledgethat
conceivesoflearningas a transactionbetweenthe
Situationsin
person and the social environment.
situated learning theorysuch as life space and
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200
AcademyofManagementLearning& Education
learningspace are notnecessarilyphysicalplaces
but constructsof the person's experience in the
social environment.
These situationsare embedded in communitiesofpracticethathave a history,
norms,tools,and traditionsofpractice.Knowledge
resides notin theindividual'shead but in communities of practice.Learning is thus a process of
becominga memberof a communityof practice
throughlegitimateperipheralparticipation(e.g.,
apprenticeship).Situatedlearningtheoryenriches
the learningspace conceptby remindingus that
learningspaces extendbeyondtheteacherand the
classroom.Theyinclude socializationintoa wider
of practicethatinvolvesmembership,
community
fromnoviceto exformation,
transitioning
identity
and
experience in the
pert throughmentorship,
activitiesof the practice,as well as the reproducofpractice
tionand developmentofthecommunity
itselfas newcomersreplace old-timers.
Finally,in theirtheoryof knowledge creation,
Nonaka and Konno (1998)introducethe Japanese
conceptof ba, a "contextthat harborsmeaning,"
whichis a shared space thatis the foundationfor
knowledgecreation."Knowledgeis embedded in
ba, where it is then acquired throughone's own
on theexperiencesofothexperienceorreflections
ers" (Nonaka & Konno, 1998:40). Knowledge embedded inba is tacitand can onlybe made explicit
throughsharingof feelings,thoughts,and experiences of persons in the space. For this to happen
theba space requiresthatindividualsremovebarriersbetweenone anotherin a climatethatemphasizes "care,love,trust,and commitment."
Learning
spaces similarlyrequire normsof psychological
safety,serious purpose, and respect to promote
learning.
In ELTtheexperientiallearningspace is defined
and repellingforces(positiveand
bytheattracting
negative valences) of the two poles of the dual
and experiencing/
dialectics of action/reflection
a
two-dimensional
map
conceptualizing,creating
of the regionsof the learningspace. Individuals'
learningstyle positionsthemin one of these regions depending on the equilibrium of forces
among action, reflection,experiencing,and conceptualizing.As withtheconceptoflifespace, this
positionis determinedby a combinationof individual dispositionand characteristicsofthelearnThe LSI measuresan individual's
ingenvironment.
for
a
preference
particularregionof the learning
"homeregion"so to speak.
that
individual's
space,
Learners'scoreson theLSI place themin one ofthe
nine regionsdepictedin Figure2, each ofwhichis
associated witha specificprocessoflearningfrom
experience.These regionsare named forthepoints
of the compass and are divided into specialized
June
learning regions and integrativeor balancing
learningregions.The regionsof the ELT learning
types of
space offera typologyof the different
which
extent
to
the
based
on
theyrequire
learning
action versus reflection,experiencing versus
therebyemphasizingsome stages ofthe
thinking,
learningcycle overothers.
The learningprocess in specialized learningregions, accommodating,diverging,assimilating,
and converging,stronglyemphasizes one pole of
dialectic and one pole of the
the feeling/thinking
dialectic. Individuals in the NW
acting/reflecting
regionlearn primarilythroughactingand feeling.
and
In theNE regionlearnersemphasizereflecting
feeling.In the SE region learners emphasize reIn theSW regionindividuals
flectingand thinking.
learn throughthinkingand acting.
In the integrativelearningregions,N, E, S, W,
and C, thelearningprocess integratesthepoles of
one or both of the two dialectics. The learning
process in the N regionintegratesacting and reflectingwitha primaryemphasis on feeling.In the
E region the learning process integratesfeeling
and thinkingwitha primaryemphasis on reflecting. In the S regionlearnersintegrateactingand
In
witha primaryemphasis on thinking.
reflecting
feelthe W regionthe learningprocess integrates
ing and thinkingwitha primaryemphasis on action.In thecentralregionlearnerstake an integrative approach to learning that balances feeling,
acting,and reflecting.
thinking,
The ELT learningspace conceptemphasizesthat
learningis notone universalprocessbuta map of
a frameof referencewithin
learning territories,
whichmanydifferent
ways oflearningcan flourish
thatoriand interrelate.It is a holisticframework
of
ents the many different
learningto one
ways
another.As Lewin put it,
Actually,the termlearningrefersto a multitude of different
phenomena.The statement,
has to learn, autocracyis
one
"Democracy,
imposed on the person,"refersto one typeof
learning.Ifone says thatthespastic childhas
to learn to relax one is speakingofa different
type of learning. Both types probablyhave
verylittleto do withlearningFrenchvocabulary,and thistypeagain has littleto do with
learningto like spinach.Have we any rightto
classify learning to high-jump,to get along
withalcohol, and to be friendlywithpeople
underthe same term,and to expectidentical
laws toholdforany oftheseprocesses?(Cited
1951:65).
in Cartwright,
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2005
Kolb and Kolb
Experientiallearningcan be viewed as a process of locomotionthroughthe learning regions
that is influencedby a person's position in the
learningspace. Researchusing theAdaptiveStyle
Inventory(ASI; Boyatzis& Kolb, 1993)has shown
thatindividualsvaryin theirabilityto moveabout
the learningspace fromtheirhome region(e.g.,a
personscoringin thesouthernregionmovingfrom
the thinking-oriented
southernregionto the feelnorthern
ing-oriented
region)and thatthiscapacto
to
ity adapt flexibly changinglearningcontexts
is related to higherstages of adult development
(Kolb,1984,chap. 8). One's positionin thelearning
space defines that person's experience and thus
definestheir"reality".Lewin stresses the importance foreducationofdefiningthe learningspace
in termsofthe learner'sexperience:
offieldtheory
One ofthebasic characteristics
in psychology,as I see it,is the demand that
the field which influences an individual
shouldbe describednotin objectivephysicalistic terms,but in the way that it exists for
that person at that time... A teacher will
neversucceed in givingproperguidance to a
child if he does not learn to understandthe
psychological world in which that child
lives ... To substituteforthat world of the
individual the world of the teacher,of the
physicist,or ofanybodyelse is to be, notob1951:
jective,but wrong(Cited in Cartwright,
62).
LEARNING SPACES IN HIGHER EDUCATION
To illustratethe concept of learning space, we
presentdata showing the distributionof student
ofhigheredulearningstylesin threeinstitutions
in
cation that are engaged
longitudinalinstitutionaldevelopmentprogramsto promotelearning:
the Case Weatherhead School of Management
MBAprogram,theCleveland InstituteofArtundergraduateprogram,and the Case WesternReserve
Universityundergraduate program. The Case
Weatherheadinstitutionaldevelopmentprogram,
reportedin Innovationin ProfessionalEducation:
Steps on a JourneyFrom Teaching to Learning
(Boyatzis,Cowen, & Kolb 1995),focusedon curriculumdevelopment,studentdevelopment,and longitudinaloutcomeassessment(Boyatzis,Stubbs,&
Taylor,2002).MBA studentlearningstyle data is
fromBoyatzisand Mainemelis(2000).The program
at the Cleveland InstituteofArtis partofa longitudinalstudyofartisticlearningconductedby the
Ohio Consortiumon Artisticlearninginvolvinga
longitudinalstudyof artisticlearningstyles,stu-
201
dentdevelopmentworkshops,and facultydevelopmentseminars(A.Kolb& Lingham2002;Eickmann,
A. Kolb, & D. Kolb, 2003). The Case programto
enhance experientiallearningin the undergraduate curriculuminvolves longitudinaloutcomeassessment,curriculumdevelopment,facultydevelopment,and studentdevelopment.
ComparingLearningStylesofCase Management
and CIA ArtStudents
Figures 3 and 4 show how the learningstyles of
managementand art studentsare distributedin
thelearningregions.Artstudentsare concentrated
in the feeling-orientednorthernregions of the
learning space, while managementstudentsare
concentratedin the thinking-oriented
southernreone
of
art
students
gions. Forty-two
point
percent
are in the northern
regions,while 23.6%are in the
south.Forty-five
point seven percentof management studentsare in the southernregions with
21.2% in the north.More art studentsare in the
easternregionsthanin thewesternregions(35.2%
to 26.3%).More managementstudentsare in the
westernregionsthanin theeasternregions(36.3%
to 30.4%).Amongartstudentsthe SW regionis the
least populated (3.7%),while the least-populated
regionformanagementstudentsis the NE (5.1%).
Ten pointtwopercentofmanagementstudentsare
in the balancing centralregion,while 12.5%ofart
studentsare there.Boyatzisand Mainemelisfound
significantcorrelationsbetweenabstractlearning
styles and grades and GMAT indicatinga bias
toward abstraction in evaluation and selection
practices.For BFA graduates,therewas no relationshipbetweengrades and learningstyle.
ComparingLearningSpaces in Managementand
the Arts
Our observationsof the way the educational process is conductedin art schools and management
schools reveal some strikingdifferences
thatgive
insightintothe natureof learningin the different
learningregions.Dewey's distinctionbetweenartisticand scientificlearninghelps us understand
the differencebetween the kinds of learningthat
occurin arteducationand in managementeducation:
The rhythm
of loss of integrationwithenvironmentand recoveryof union not onlypersistsin man,butbecomesconsciouswithhim;
its conditionsare material out of which he
formspurposes.Emotionis theconscioussign
of a break,actual or impending.The discord
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202
AcademyofManagementLearning& Education
June
CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE
NW
Feeling-Acting
10.1%
ACTIVE
EXPERIMENTATION
N
NE
6%
5.1%
Feeling
Feeling-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting
AIg
^
J*^
REFLECTIVE
+ ReflectingFeeling-Thinking
Feeling-Thinking
Acting
OBSERVATION
13.5%
Thinking
10.2%
9.3%
SW
S
SE
12.7%
17%
16%
Thinking-Acting
Thinking
Thinking-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting
ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE3
of
LearningStyles MBAStudents(N = 1286)
is theoccasionthatinducesreflection.
Desire
forrestoration
of the unionconvertsmere
emotionintointerest
in objectsas conditions
of realizationof harmony.
Withthe realizaofreflection
is incorporated
into
tion,material
the
as
their
Since
artist
objects
meaning.
cares in a peculiarway forthephase ofexperiencein whichunionis achieved,he does
notshunmoments
ofresistanceand tension.
He rathercultivatesthem,notfortheirown
sake but because of their potentialities,
to livingconsciousnessan experibringing
with
encethatis unified
and total.Incontrast
thescithepersonwhosepurposeis esthetic,
in situin problems,
entific
manis interested
of
ationswhereintensionbetweenthematter
observationand of thoughtis marked.Of
Buthe
coursehe cares fortheirresolution.
does notrestin it; he passes on to another
problem
usingan attainedsolutiononlyas a
steppingstoneon whichtoseton footfurther
inquires.
andthe
Thedifference
betweentheesthetic
intellectualis thusone of the place where
that
emphasisfalls in the constantrhythm
with
markstheinteraction
ofthelivecreature
hissurroundings
. . . Becauseofthecompara-
tive remotenessof his end, the scientific
workeroperateswithsymbols,words,and
mathematical
signs.Theartistdoeshisthinkin
the
veryqualitativemediahe worksin,
ing
and thetermslie so closetotheobjectthathe
intoit
thattheymergedirectly
is producing
1934:
15-16).
(Dewey,
in themanageawarenessofdifferences
A first
mentand artslearningspaces came as we were
forart stupreparinga learningstyleworkshop
dents.We asked whatreadingswe shouldgive
Paul Eickmann,
and theprovost,
said,"Youknow,
forartstudentslearningis nottextdriven."This
eduwithmanagement
stoodin dramaticcontrast
cation,whichis almostentirely
organizedaround
disscientific
textsthatdeliveran authoritative
basis of the management
course.The scientific
was establishedin 1959byan influencurriculum
thatsoughttoimtialCarnegieFoundation
report
of manageintellectual
the
respectability
prove
itin threescientific
menteducationbygrounding
and behavmathematics,
disciplines:economics,
ioralscience.
eduThe text-driven
approachofmanagement
cation contrastswiththe experientiallearning
process of demonstration-practice-production-
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Kolb and Kolb
2005
203
CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE
NW
N
NE
13.8%
17.2%
11.1%
Ac*g
pJLg
RefiLg
Feeling-Acting
ACTIVE
Feeling
Feeling-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting
REFLECTIVE
+ Reflecting Feeling-Thinking
Feeling-Thinking
Acting
OBSERVATION
EXPERIMENTATION
Thinking
8.8%
12.5%
13%
S
SE
SW
Thinking-Acting
Thinking
Thinking-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting
3.7%
8.8%
11.1%
ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE 4
Learning Style Distributionof CIA Graduating Students (N = 216)
critiquethatis used in mostartclasses (see Table
in artedu1).Thisprocessis repeatedrecursively
while
education
is
cation,
primarily
management
witheach topiccoveredin a linearsediscursive,
Managequence withlittlerecursiverepetition.
menteducationfocuseson telling;arteducation
emphasizes showing. Managementeducation
arteducationemphatendsto emphasizetheory;
Arteducaoftheory
and practice.
sizesintegration
tionfocusesonthelearners'inside-out
expression;
educationon outside-in
impression.
management
Mosttimein managementclasses is spentconwith relativelylittle time
veyinginformation
TABLE 1
of
Arts
Education and Management
Comparison
Education
ArtsEducation
ManagementEducation
Aesthetic
Demo-practice-production-critique
Recursive
Theoryand practice
Showing
Expression
Individualized
Diversefaculty
Scientific
Textdriven
Discursive
Theory
Telling
Impression
Batched
Abstractfaculty
mostofwhichocspenton studentperformance,
curson testsand papers.In artclasses, themajorityofthetimeis spenton studentexpression
of ideas and skills. Arteducationtends to be
withsmall classes and individindividualized,
ual attention,
while managementeducationis
organizedintolarge classes withlimitedindividualizedattention.An assistant dean at the
ColumbusCollege of Artand Design who maand latergot
joredin musicas an undergraduate
an MBA,contrasted
the3 hoursa weekhe spent
in individualtutorialwithhis mentorwiththe
shockhe experiencedin enteringa tieredMBA
classroomof200students.Finally,arteducation
tendstobe represented
memberswith
byfaculty
diverse learningstyles,whereas management
education tends to favor specialized faculty
memberswitha primarily
abstractlearningorientation.
Locomotion
in theArtsLearning
Longitudinal
Space
LSI scoresfromCIA studentsat the
Longitudinal
oftheirfreshman
andjunioryearsshow
beginning
a significant
movement
amongstudentsfromthe
reflective
easternregionsto the active western
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AcademyofManagementLearning& Education
204
regions,perhaps indicatingstudentgrowthand
developmenttoward a more active role in their
own learningas a resultoftheempowering,
active
structure
ofthe CIA learningenvironment
(see Table 2). Longitudinalstudies ofLSI changes among
undergraduates in Alverno College's program,
which emphasizes competency development
throughactive experientiallearning,show similar
movementfromthe reflectiveto active learning
regionsacross thefreshmanto senioryears (Mentkowski& Strait1983;Mentkowskiand Associates,
2000).
LearningStylesofCase Undergraduates
of Case freshmen
Figure5 shows the distribution
in thelearningregions.As mightbe expectedfrom
a researchuniversityliberal arts programwitha
strongemphasis on science and engineering,the
patternof LSI scores shows a distributionacross
the learning regions that is similar to the Case
MBA programin its emphasis on the abstract
southernregions.Forty-nine
percentofCase freshmen are positioned in the southernregions (vs.
47.5%MBAs) and 16.8%of the freshmenare in the
northern
regions(vs. 21.2%MBAs).As withtheMBA
students,there are significantcorrelationsbetweenabstractselectioncriteria,(SAT scores),and
abstractLSI scores (r = .32). However,the Case
freshmen
are moresimilarto theCIA graduatesin
theirdistributionin the eastern and westernregions. Thirty-five
pointfivepercentof Case freshmen are in the eastern regions (vs. 35.2% CIA).
Twenty-three
pointthreepercentofCase freshmen
are in thewesternregions(vs. 26.3%CIA). The NW
is theleast populatedlearningregion(3.5%),while
theS regionhas thegreatestnumberofCase freshmen (19.4%).
June
Skill Developmentand LearningRegions
Table 3 shows the relationshipbetween the positionofCase freshmenin the learningregionsand
theirlearningskills as measured by the Learning
Skills Profile.Five of the 12 learning skill areas
show significantF values. All three conceptual
skill areas, TheoryBuilding,QuantitativeAnalysis, and Technologyskills show significantdifferences among regions.Tukeyand Scheffetestsindicate thattheoryskills are highestin the S and
SW and lowestin theNE region.Quantitativeanalysis skills are highestin the S and lowest in the
NW,N, and NE regions.Amongthe interpersonal
across
skillareas, onlyhelp skillswere significant
the
than
NW
with
the
higher
significantly
regions,
S region.In the action skills area, only initiative
skills were significantwiththe NW area significantlyhigherthantheE, SE, and C regions.Noneof
skillareas weresignificant
theinformation
among
regions.
Summary
The portraitsof institutionallearningspaces presented above suggest thatstudentlearningstyle
scores may be a way to describe the institutional
learningspaces experiencedby students.In particularthecomparisonbetweentheobservededucational programsand teaching methodsof CIA
arts education and Case MBA education seems
consistentwith respective student LSI distributionsin the nine-regionlearningspace, withMBA
studentsprimarilyin the southernthinkingand
westernacting regions,and arts studentsfalling
feelingand easternreflecmainlyin the northern
tionregions.The corresponding
discursive,telling,
educational methodsofthe MBAprogramand the
recursive,showing,techniques of the art school
TABLE2
Year
CIA Students'LearningStyleat the Beginningofthe Freshmanand Junior
Freshman(2000)
(2001)
Junior
LSI Scores
n
M
SD
M
SD
ta
(CE)
Experiencing
(RO)
Reflecting
Conceptualizing(AC)
Acting(AE)
AC-CE
AE-RO
77
77
77
77
77
77
26.31
31.36
28.88
32.88
2.57
1.52
6.07
6.56
6.28
6.48
9.97
11.40
26.87
29.23
29.34
34.56
2.47
5.32
6.64
7.00
7.47
6.80
11.88
11.56
-0.66
2.42**
-0.54
-1.95*
0.08
-2.61**
a
Significancelevels are forpaired sample t testsas two-tailedtests.
*p < .05.**p < .01.
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2005
Kolb and Kolb
205
CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE
NW
N
NE
3.5%
6.7%
6.6%
Alg
FeJfag
+
Feeling-Acting
ACTIVE
EXPERIMENTATION
Feeling
Feeling-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting
J*^
REFLECTIVE
Feeling-Thinking
ActingReflecting Feeling-Thinking
OBSERVATION
7.6%
Thinking
14.2%
11.5%
SW
S
SE
12.2%
19.4%
17.4%
Thinking-Acting
Thinking
Thinking-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting
ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE 5
Case 2002 Undergraduate Freshman LSI Distribution (N = 288)
recall Dewey's descriptionofthe scientificworker
who "operates with symbols,words and mathematical signs" and the artistwho "does his thinking in the veryqualitativemedia he worksin."
The verysimilarlearningspace distributions
of
Case undergraduateand MBA studentssuggest
theinstitutional
exosysteminfluenceoftheuniversity'sresearchmissionand cultureon thelearning
spaces experiencedbystudents.Bothstudentsand
facultyare selected for their abstract learning
skills, so it is not surprisingthat the university
learningspaces would predominatein the southernregions.
As the undergraduatedata on learning skills
and learningregionssuggest,the nine regionsof
the experiential learning space are associated
withspecificlearningprocesses.The learningprofor
cesses in each regionare in turnmosteffective
theachievementofcertainlearningoutcomes.For
northern
regionsare
example,thefeeling-oriented
most effectivefor learning interpersonalskills,
southernregions are
while the thinking-oriented
mosteffectiveforlearninganalyticand quantitative skills. Individuals' learning styles represent
their preferencesfor particular regions of the
learningspace, theirhomebases so to speak. That
Case specializes in education forabstract,ana-
lyticskills makes sense in that its mission is to
prepare studentsforcareers thatrequireabstractionand analysis. However,to learn skills outside
of theirhome region,learners need to move to
otherregionsand thelearningprocessforany skill
requirestheabilityto movethroughtheexperiencand actingcycle.To fully
ing,reflecting,
thinking,
develop thewhole personrequiresan educational
culturethatpromotesdiverselearningspaces and
locomotionamong them.
CREATING LEARNING SPACES FOR THE
ENHANCEMENT OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
The enhancement of experiential learning in
highereducationcan be achieved throughthecreation of learning spaces that promotegrowthproducingexperiencesforlearners.A centralconcept in Dewey's educational philosophy is the
continuumofexperiencein whichexperiencesthat
promoteor inhibitlearningare arrayed."The belief that all genuine education comes about
throughexperiencedoes notmean thatall experiences are genuinelyeducative. . . For some experiencesare mis-educative.Anyexperienceis miseducative that has the effectof arresting or
distortingthe growthof furtherexperience . . .
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206
AcademyofManagementLearning& Education
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June
Kolb and Kolb
2005
Hencethecentralproblemofan educationbased
is toselectthekindofpresentexpeonexperience
and creativelyin subriencesthatlive fruitfully
sequent experiences"(Dewey, 1938: 25-28).A
numberofeducationalprinciplesflowfromthis
philosophy.
RespectforLearnersand TheirExperience
A growth-producing
experiencein thephilosophy
notonlytoa direct
ofexperiential
learningrefers
understudy
related
to
a
subjectmatter
experience
lifespace ofthe
butalso to thetotalexperiential
learner.Thisincludesthelearner'sphysicaland
and qualityof relationships.
social environment
We referto thisas the cheers/jeers
experiential
Atone end learnersfeelthattheyare
continuum.
whoare known
ofa learningcommunity
members
and respectedby facultyand colleagues and
whose experienceis taken seriously,a space
knowsyourname."Attheother
"whereeverybody
extremeare "mis-educative"
learningenvironmentswherelearnersfeelalienated,alone,unrecinthe
andgrowth
anddevalued.Learning
ognized,
"where
knows
environment
nobody
your
jeers
ifnotimpossible.
Whilethis
name"can be difficult
it
mayseemobviousoreven"preachy,"
principle
foreventhefinesteducationalinis problematic
PresidentLawrenceSummersof Harstitutions.
addressto
varddedicatedhis2003commencement
examination
of
a
introduction
the
comprehensive
in part
motivated
oftheundergraduate
program,
from
a
science
student
received
a
letter
he
top
by
"I am intheeighth
thestatement,
whichcontained
nota singlesciand
there
is
of
semester college
could
me by
here
who
ence professor
identify
name."Summersconcludes:"Theonlytruemeasureofa successfuleducationalmodelis ourstuofit"(Summers,
2003:64).
dents'experience
BeginLearningWiththe Learner'sExperienceof
the SubjectMatter
learnersmustfirstof all
To learnexperientially
Studentswillofvalue
their
ownand
experience.
mean"But
I
don't
have
tensay,
anyexperience,"
their
is
believe
that
experience
ingthattheydon't
or
for
the
the
teacher
of any value to
learning
at hand.Thenewscienceoflearnsubjectmatter
& Cocking2000)is based on
Brown,
ing(Bransford,
theoriesofPiagetand
constructivist
thecognitive
that
that
people construct
Vygotsky emphasize
from
whatthey
andunderstanding
newknowledge
based
on
their
know
and
believe,
previous
already
experience.Zull (2002)suggeststhat this prior
knowledgeexistsin the brainas neuronalnet-
207
workswhichcannotbe erasedby a teacher'scoteacher
gent explanation.Instead the effective
builds on exploration
of what studentsalready
knowand believe,onthesensetheyhavemadeof
theirpreviousconcreteexperiences.Beginning
withtheseorrelatedconcrete
allows
experiences
thelearnerto re-examine
and modify
theirprevious sensemaking
in lightofthenewideas.
Creatingand Holdinga Hospitable Space for
Learning
To learnrequiresfacingand embracing
differencbetweenskilled
es; whethertheybe differences
and one'snovicestatus,differexpertperformance
encesbetweendeeplyheldideas and beliefsand
newideas,ordifferences
inthelifeexperience
and
values of othersthatcan lead to understanding
them.These differences
can be challengingand
a
threatening,
requiring learningspace thatenthe
and the
courages
expressionof differences
to
the
learner
in facpsychological
safety support
these
As
Robert
ing
challenges(Sanford,1966).
Kegansays,"peoplegrowbestwheretheycontinan ingenious
blendofchallenge
uouslyexperience
and support"(1994:42).As Kegan impliesby his
use ofthetermingenious
andholdblend,creating
this
is
not
He
notes
that
ing
learningspace
easy.
while educationalinstitutions
have been quite
successful
inchallenging
students,
theyhavebeen
muchless successfulin providingsupport.One
reasonforthismaybe thatchallengestendtobe
while supportmustgo
specificand immediate,
an
immediate
"You-can-do-it"
statement.
beyond
Creatingand holdinga learningspace requiresa
climateor cultureofsupportthatthelearnercan
trustto "hold"themovertime.In Conversational
& Kolb,2002),we drawon
Jensen,
Learning(Baker,
the worksof HenriNouwen(1975)and Parker
Palmer(1983,1990,1998)todescribethischallengingand supportive
learningspace as onethatwelcomesthestranger
in a spiritofhospitality
where
"studentsand teacherscan enterintoa fearless
communication
witheach otherand allow their
life
tobe theirprimary
and
respective experiences
mostvaluable sourceofgrowth
and maturation"
(Nouwen,1975:60).
MakingSpace forConversationalLearning
Humanbeingsnaturally
makemeaningfrom
their
conversation.
Yet genuine
experiencesthrough
in thetraditional
conversation
lectureclassroom
can be extremely
restricted
ornonexistent.
Atthe
breakorend oftheclass thesometimes
painfully
silentclassroomwill suddenlycome alive with
This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
208
AcademyofManagementLearning& Education
spontaneousconversationamong students.Significant learning can occur in these conversations,
althoughit may not always be the learning the
teacherintended.Making space forgood conversation as partofthe educational process provides
theopportunity
forreflection
on and meaningmakabout
that
ing
experiences
improvethe effectiveness ofexperientiallearning(Keeton,Sheckley,&
Griggs 2002;Bunker1999).For example, the creation of learning teams as part of a course promotes effectivelearning when psychologically
safe conditionsare present (Wyss-Flamm,2002).
ConversationalLearningpresentsthe dimensions
of spaces that allow forgood conversation.It is
morelikelyto occurin spaces thatintegratethinking and feeling,talkingand listening,leadership
and solidarity,recognitionofindividualityand relatedness,and discursiveand recursiveprocesses.
When the conversationalspace is dominatedby
one extremeof these dimensions,for example,
talkingwithoutlistening,conversationallearning
is diminished.
MakingSpace forDevelopmentofExpertise
Withvast knowledgebases in everyfieldthatare
ever changingand growing,many highereducationcurriculaconsistofcourseaftercourse "covering" a series of topics in a relativelysuperficial
factualway. Yet as theNationalResearchCouncil
in its reporton thenew science oflearningrecommendson thebasis ofresearchon expertlearners,
effective
learningrequiresnotonlyfactualknowlbut
theorganizationofthese factsand ideas
edge,
in a conceptual framework
and the abilityto retrieveknowledgeforapplication and transferto
different
contexts(Bransford,Brown,& Cocking
2000).Such deep learningis facilitatedby deliberate, recursivepracticeon areas thatare relatedto
the learner's goals (Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs
2002).The process of learningdepicted in the experientiallearningcycle describes this recursive
spiral ofknowledgedevelopment.Space needs to
be createdin curriculaforstudentsto pursuesuch
deep experientiallearningin orderto develop expertiserelatedto theirlifepurpose.
MakingSpaces forActingand Reflecting
Learningis like breathing;it involvesa takingin
and processingofexperienceand a puttingout or
expressionof what is learned. As Dewey noted,
"nothingtakes rootin mindwhen thereis no balance betweendoing and receiving.Some decisive
actionis needed in orderto establish contactwith
therealitiesoftheworldand in orderthatimpres-
June
sions maybe so relatedto factsthattheirvalue is
tested and organized" (1934: 45). Yet many programsin highereducationare muchmorefocused
on impressinginformationon the mind of the
learner than on opportunitiesforthe learners to
expressand testin actionwhattheyhave learned.
Many courses will spend 15 weeks requiringstuand onlya
dentsto take in volumesofinformation
their
learnand
of
hours
testing
expressing
couple
is in
This
exam.
on
a
often
multiple-choice
ing,
contrastto arts educationbuilton the demonstration-practice-critiqueprocess where active expressionand testingare continuouslyinvolvedin
the learningprocess. Zull (2002)suggests thatactionmaybe themostimportant
partofthelearning
the
it
closes
because
by bringingthe
cycle
cycle
and thoughtintocontact
inside worldofreflection
withthe outside worldof experiencescreated by
action (cf. Dewey, 1897). Keeton, Sheckley and
Gross (2002)proposeanotherlevel ofaction/reflection integration,emphasizing the importanceof
in deepeninglearningfromexpeactive reflection
rience.
MakingSpaces forFeeling and Thinking
We have seen a polarizationbetweenfeelingand
thinkingin the contrast between the feelingorientedlearningspace ofCIA artseducationand
the thinking-oriented
learningspaces ofthe Case
MBA
programs.It seems that
undergraduateand
tend
educationalinstitutions todevelop a learning
culturethat emphasizes the learningmode most
related to theireducational objectivesand to devalue the opposite learning mode. Yet, Damasio
(1994,2003),LeDoux (1997),Zull (2002),and others
offerconvincingresearch evidence that reason
relatedin theirinfluand emotionare inextricably
ence on learningand memory.Indeed it appears
thatfeelingsand emotionshave primacyin determiningwhetherand whatwe learn.Negativeemotionssuch as fearand anxietycan blocklearning,
while positive feelingsof attractionand interest
may be essential forlearning.To learn something
thatone is notinterestedin is extremelydifficult.
Negative emotionssuch as fearand
anxietycan block learning,while
positivefeelingsof attractionand
interestmay be essential forlearning.
MakingSpace forInside-OutLearning
David Hunt(1987,1991)describesinside-out
learning
as a processofbeginningwithoneselfinlearningby
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Kolb and Kolb
2005
focusingon one's experiencedknowledge,thatis,
the implicittheories,metaphors,interests,desires
and goals thatguide experience.Makingspace for
inside-outlearningby linkingeducationalexperimoences to thelearner'sinterestskindlesintrinsic
tivationand increaseslearningeffectiveness.
Under
a sparkofintrinthepropereducationalconditions,
sic interest
can be nurtured
intoa flameofcommitted
lifepurpose(Dewey,1897).Yet learningspaces that
emphasizeextrinsicrewardcan driveout intrinsically motivatedlearning(Deci & Ryan,1985;Kohn
1993;Ryan& Deci, 2000).Longago Deweydescribed
the trendtowardemphasis on extrinsicrewardin
educationand theconsequencesfortheteacherwho
wieldsthecarrotand stick:
Thus in education we have that systematic
depreciation of interest which has been
noted . . . Thus we have the spectacle of
professional educators decryingappeal to
interestwhile they uphold with great dignity the need of reliance upon examinations, marks, promotions and emotions,
prizes and the time honoredparaphernalia
of rewards and punishments.The effectof
this situation in crippling the teacher's
sense of humorhas not received the attention which it deserves (1916:336).
MakingSpace forLearnersto Take Charge of
TheirOwn Learning
Manystudentsenterhighereducationconditioned
by theirprevious educational experiences to be
passive recipientsofwhattheyare taught.Making
space forstudentsto take controlofand responsibilityfortheirlearningcan greatlyenhance their
abilityto learn fromexperience.Some authorsuse
to describethisprocess of
thetermself-authorship
constructingone's own knowledge versus passivelyreceivingknowledgefromothers,considerto be a majoraim ofeducation
ing self-authorship
(Kegan, 1994; King, 2003; Baxter-Magolda,1999).
Othersdescribe this goal as increasingstudents'
capacity forself-direction(Boyatzis,1994;Robertson, 1988).The ManagementDevelopmentand Assessmentcoursein theCase MBAprogramaims to
throughassessment
develop studentself-direction
and feedbackon learningskillsand competencies
and thedevelopmentofa learningplan to achieve
each student'scareer/lifegoals (Boyatzis,1994).
Bransford,
Brown,and Cocking(2002)argue forthe
developmentof meta-cognitiveskills to promote
active learning.By developingtheireffectiveness
as learners(Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs,2002),stufor
dentscan be empoweredto take responsibility
209
their own learning by understandinghow they
learn best and the skills necessary to learn in
regions that are uncomfortableforthem.Workshops on experientiallearningand learningstyles
can help studentstodevelop meta-cognitive
learnskills.
At
CIA
and
the
Case
ing
undergraduate
programs,studentworkshopshelp studentsinterprettheirLSI scores and understandhow to use
this information
to improvetheirlearning effectiveness. JohnReese at the Universityof Denver
Law School conducts"ConnectingwiththeProfessor"workshopsin whichstudentsselectone offour
teaching styles based on the fourpredominant
learningstylesthattheyhave difficulty
connecting
with. The workshopgives multipleexamples of
remedialactions thatthe learnermay take to correct the misconnectioncreated by differencesin
teaching and learning styles.Peer group discussions among law studentsgive an opportunity
to
create new ideas about how to get the mostfrom
professorswith differentlearning and teaching
styles(Reese, 1998).
PROMOTING LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
THROUGH INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
To implementthese educational learning space
principlesrequires a holisticprogramof institutional developmentthat includes curriculumdevelopment,facultydevelopment,studentdevelopment,administrativeand staffdevelopment,and
resource development.Programsin these areas
need to be coordinatedaroundan institutional
vision and missionto promotelearning.Such a coordinatedinstitutionalapproach can providethe
synergynecessary for dramatic organizational
change,while fragmented
approaches in one area
are oftenfrustrated
lack
of interestor underby
in
others.
One
can
standing
develop a state ofthe
art learning-focused
curriculumthatis doomed to
failureiffacultymembersare noton board withit
philosophicallyand technically.If administrative
leadership has prioritiesfocused on income and
ratings,the resourcesforlearningpromotionwill
notbe available in otherdevelopmentalareas.
as
By developing theireffectiveness
learners(Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs,
2002),studentscan be empoweredto take
fortheirown learningby
responsibility
understandinghow theylearn best and
the skillsnecessaryto learn in regions
thatare uncomfortable
forthem.
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210
AcademyofManagementLearning& Education
in Professional
In thelast chapterofInnovation
Educationtitled"WhatifLearningWerethePurCowen,& Kolbf1995),
pose ofEducation"
(Boyatzis,
tohelpeducawe proposedfivedesignprinciples
oflearnfocuson thepromotion
tionalinstitutions
ing.
June
to experienvision thatstartswitha commitment
tial learningwithrigorousscholarshipin undergraduate, graduate and professional education
programstoproduceeducated learners- educated
learners who are awake to new possibilities"
(Campus News,2003:2).
Case has
thenewSAGEScurriculum,
To support
to
launcheda 5-yearfaculty
program
development
CenterforInbe organizedand deliveredthrough
novationin Teachingand Education(UCITE).Aca totalof80
cordingto theplan ofthisprogram,
will unfacultymembersacross the university
onhowtodevelopa
dergoan intensedevelopment
courseorothereducationalexperiences
particular
based onexperiential
learningovertheperiodof5
meetregmembers
The institutionaldevelopmentprogramto profaculty
years.In thisprogram,
moteexperientiallearninginitiatedbyCase Westularlyto discuss the philosophyof experiential
thatreernReserveUniversity
(Case) providesan example
learning,themethodsofimplementation
ofthisholisticapproach.In October2000the Case
spondto theneeds oftheindividualschoolsand
thatneedstobe
thecoursestructure
departments,
presidentand provostcreatedthePresident'sComthatlendthemmissionon UndergraduateEducationand Life.The
putinplace,theteachingmethods
thegoals,and assessmenttechselvestomeeting
Commission's report recommended that Case
such
and support
tocoordinate
niques.Inan effort
adopt a philosophyof experientiallearning,eninitiainstitutional
that
statement
in
the
mission/value
development
university-wide
capsulated
"CWRUgraduates studentswho have discovered
tives,the new presidentcreatedthe Centerfor
effort
Research(CIR),a collaborative
Institutional
and are realizing theirown uncommonpotential
secfor
all
research
institutional
to
transformative
the
support
expand
through
University'suniquely
roleis toprovide
Itsprimary
torsoftheuniversity.
environment
and its philosophythateducation is
facabout the university's
students,
information
best accomplished throughexperience" (Presito
environment
and
dent'sCommission,2001:2). Buildingon the Comstaff,
support
programs
ulty,
asdecisionmaking,
missionreport,
policyanalysis,institutional
university
facultydeveloped an exinitiaThe
Case
and
called
curriculum
sessment,
strategic
planning.
perimental undergraduate
tivetoenhanceexperiential
Seminar Approachto General Education Studies
learningintheunder(SAGES).The SAGES 2-yearpilotprogramwas cregraduate curriculumintegratinginstitutional
vision
a leadership
activities
ated as part of curriculumrevisionof the underthrough
development
educaof
creation
the
for
an
as
serves
Education
General
(GER)
example
Requirements
graduate
tionallearningspaces thatpromotelearningin
of College of Artsand Sciences proposed by the
commission.Followingtheproposednew GER rechighereducation.
and pro1. Evaluationofeducationalstructures
oflearningcriteria.
cesses againstpromotion
2. Longitudinal
outcomestudiesto determine
valueadded.
learning
institution.
a learner-centered
3. Becoming
4. Continuousresearchand inquiryabout the
learningprocess.
5. Becominga learningorganizationthrough
conversation.
continuous
stakeholder
ommendations,SAGES was designed to fosterin
studentsbreadthas well as specialized knowledge
by exposing themto a wide range of disciplines
withinthreemajordivisionsofthecollege: Natural
Sciences and Mathematics,Artsand Humanities,
and Social Sciences in additionto theirmajorfield
ofstudy.Such learningobjectivesare to be accomplished througha small class size (max 15 students),intenseone-to-oneadvising,and exposure
to diverse learning environmentsand teaching
pedagogy across the university(A. Kolb et al.,
2003).In 2002the new president,Edward Hundert,
embraced the Commissionreport,committedthe
fundingto implementfullythe SAGES curriculum
beginningin the fall of2005,and in his inaugural
address, articulateda vision forthe futureof the
"We'regoing to focusall of our collecuniversity:
tivetalent,attentionand resourceson a vision- a
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212
Academy of Management Learning & Education
June
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Alice Y. Kolb received her PhD
from Case Western Reserve
Universityin organizational behavior. She is the president of
Experience-Based
Learning
Systems, Inc., a research and
development organization that
promotes experiential learning
in organizations worldwide.
Her currentfocus is on promoting learning in higher education throughinstitutionaldevelopment.
David A. Kolb is professorof organizational behavior at Case
Western Reserve University,
Weatherhead School of Management. He received his PhD
in social psychology fromHarvard University. Kolb is best
known forhis research on experiential learning and learning
styles described in Experiential
Learning: Experience as the
Source of Learning and Development. His current research
focuses on team learning and
experiential learning in conversation.
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