Editors
Andre Bationo
Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa
(AGRA)
Soil Health Program
6 Agostino Neto Road
Airport Residential Area
PMB KIA 114, Airport-Accra
Ghana
abationo@agra-alliance.org
Boaz Waswa
Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute
of the International Centre for Tropical
Agriculture (TSBF-CIAT)
Nairobi, Kenya
bswaswa@yahoo.com
Jeremiah M. Okeyo
Tropical Soil Biology & Fertility (TSBF)
African Network for Soil Biology
and Fertility (AfNet)
c/o ICRAF, Off UN Avenue
P.O. Box 30677-00100
Nairobi, Kenya
jmosioma@gmail.com
Fredah Maina
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
Socio-economics and Biometrics
P.O. Box 14733-00800
Nairobi, Kenya
fredah.maina@yahoo.com
Job Kihara
Tropical Soil Biology & Fertility (TSBF)
African Network for Soil Biology
and Fertility (AfNet)
c/o ICRAF, Off UN Avenue
P.O. Box 30677-00100
Nairobi, Kenya
j .kihara@cgiar.org
Please note that some manuscripts have been previously published in the journal 'Nutrient
Cycling in Agroecosystems' Special Issue "Innovations as Key to the Green Revolution in
Africa: Exploring the Scientific Facts". (Chapters 13, 14, 19,20,23,36,42,57,59,78,80
and 113)
Printed in 2 volumes
ISBN 978-90-481-2541-8
e-ISBN 978-90-481-2543-2
001 10.1007/978-90-481-2543-2
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 20 I 1930869
© Springer Science+Business Media BV 2011
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transmitted in any form or by
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specifically for the purpose of
purchaser of the work.
Assessment of Occupational Safety Concerns in Pesticide
Use Among Small-Scale Farmers in Sagana, Central
Highlands, Kenya
P.Mureithi, F.Waswa, and E. Kituyi
Abstract
Small-scale farmers in Sagana area of
central Kenya constitute a population at risk due
to intensive use of pesticides in the production of
mainly horticultural crops for commercial purposes.
This chapter examines the main causes of pesticide
hazards and risks, barriers to taking risk reduction
measures and cues to adopting safety behaviour when
dealing with pesticides. Data were collected by the
use of interviews conducted in 2006/2007 from a sample of 140 farmers. Perception scales were developed
from interview items and were ranked along a modified three-point Likert scale. Analysis of the items
and scales showed that farmers had fairly high levels of perceived risk, perceived severity and perceived
benefits of taking action to mitigate pesticide hazards.
Results from this study showed that farmers are still
susceptible to pesticide-related dangers notably due to
resignation to fate, perceived high cost of purchasing
protective gear and lack of adequate training in the
use and handling of pesticides. Further, contrary to
conventional thinking, farmers' education had limited
positive effect to safety behaviour when handling pesticides. The challenge to policy and practice towards
safe use of pesticides lies in issues of farmers' economic survivability, perceptions and attitudes, along
the whole chain from pesticide procurement, storage,
farm application and disposal.
P. Mureithi (1:8l)
Department of Environmental
Studies and Community
Development, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya
e-rnail: petmukariuki@yahoo.co.uk
Keywords Intensive
farming
Pesticides
Occupational safety Environmental health
Introduction
Due to decreasing land sizes commensurate with population pressure in small-scale agro-ecosystems, agricultural intensification and thus use of agro-chemicals
seems to be the only viable option farmers have to
maximise yields in pursuit of survival. As a result,
preventing, minimising and controlling occupational
health/safety and environmental hazards associated
with pesticide use remains an important concern in
such agro-ecosystems. According to UNEP (1985),
about 2-3 million tonnes of pesticide products are scattered all over the environment each year in an attempt
to control pests and diseases. On the other hand, ILO
(1999) estimates that there are some 3 million acute
cases of pesticide-related poisoning in the world each
year, 70% of which take place in developing countries and 340,000 results into death. According to
WHO (1989) about 3% of agricultural workers in
developing countries on average suffer an episode of
pesticide poisoning every year, which means that of
the 830 million agricultural workers in the developing
world (ILO, 1999), there are about 25 million cases of
occupational pesticide poisoning. With about 350,000
cases in the 1980s, Kenya is among African countries with the highest cases of pesticide poisoning per
year.
With pesticide imports of about 7,600 tonnes, worth
Kenya shillings 3.114 billion in 1998, Kenya is among
the highest pesticide users in sub-Saharan (NEMA,
A. Bationo et at. (eds.), Innovations as Key to the Green Revolution in Africa,
001 10.1007/978-90-481-2543-2_100,
© Springer Science-Business
Media B.Y. 2011
993
P.Mureithi et al.
994
2005). NEMA further estimates that pesticides poison
7% of agricultural sector's population in the country every year. However, these figures are mainly
derived from large-scale agriculture where workers
seek poisoning compensation from their employers. In
small-scale rural areas like Sagana with poor monitoring and reporting systems, more cases could be going
unreported.
Widespread use of pesticides in Kenya has
made them ubiquitous in the environment. Wandiga
et al. (2002) reported pesticide residues in water
and sediment samples from several places at the
Kenyan coast where River Tana and River Athi
drain after traversing intensively cultivated areas in
Kenya's highlands including Sagana. These included
dichloro-diphenyl-ethane
(DDE), dichloro-diphenyldichloro-ethane (DDD), dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT), Lidane, Dieldrin, with concentrations
often exceeding 200 mg/g.
Although many human exposure cases go unreported, especially non-acute cases in rural farming,
high pesticide levels have been found in human milk
among Kenyans compared to corresponding levels in
other countries (Kanja et al., 1988). This places high
economic and health burden to households who are
already resource poor. Kenya's horticultural sector has
been under special pressure from international governments, especially Europe where it has been the
largest exporter of horticultural produce for a decade
to address pesticide hazards (Jaffee et al., 2005).
According to the UK Pesticide Residue Committee
(2005), random samples of Kenyan French beans and
passion fruits tested in Europe in the years 1999-2004
indicated the presence of high levels of pesticides well
above recommended maximum residue levels (MRLs).
Farmers seem to have accepted pesticide hazards
because of the perceived economic gains derived from
farming with little consideration of the documented
dangers (Moses et al., 1993; Garcia, 1998), especially
when pesticides are mishandled or used for the wrong
purpose.
This chapter is based on a study carried out at
Sagana, in the central highlands of Kenya, with the
aim of informing policy decisions towards safe use and
handling of pesticides. This area was chosen because
it forms an island of an intensively cultivated region
(0.6 ha per household; average population density of
the area is 202 persons per kilometre squared) in the
country (GOK, 2001, 2003). The specific objectives of
the study were as follows:
1.
11.
Ill.
To determine the farmers' attitudes, perceptions
and behaviour towards pesticides
To assess the potential occupational safety hazards associated with such attitudes, perceptions
and behaviour
To suggest measures that would inform policy
interventions towards safe use of pesticide at the
farm level
Materials and Methods
The study design entailed a life cycle approach (LCA),
which examines selected variables at all stages of
the life of a product or an event. In this case farmers' attitudes, perceptions and behaviour when dealing
with pesticides were assessed starting from choice of
pesticides, purchase, transport and storage, mixture
preparation, use and disposal. The unit of analysis was
the individual farming household. Simple random sampling was used to select a representative sample of 140
households consistent with standard statistical procedures as discussed by among others (Saleemi 1997).
Purposive sampling was used to select key informants
who included local leaders, both public and private
agricultural extension officials, sales agents of firms
dealing in pesticides, provincial administration and
local health officers.
Data were collected using researcher-administered
questionnaires and observation checklists. Data on
unreported cases of pesticide poisoning as well as the
factors that make the farming community vulnerable
to pesticide hazards were obtained through multistakeholder focussed group discussions. Secondary
data were obtained from such sources as environmental impact assessment reports from the area and
health records from two health centres serving the area,
i.e. at Mutaga and Kiamariga shopping centres. Both
descriptive and inferential statistics were used in data
analysis. These included frequency distributions, modified Likert scale for analysing farmers' attitudes and
perceptions towards pesticides and Pearson correlation
to test relationships between variables such as education level and attitudes towards pesticide-associated
hazards.
Assessment of Occupational Safety Concerns
995
Results and Discussion
Out of the sampled population, 135 (96%) used pesticides as the first choice in pest management (Table 1).
Only about 64% of the total respondents had appropriate pesticides application equipment while others borrowed or used twigs. Only 17% of the total respondents
knew of and had the recommended list of pesticides
for the crops they grew. This means that up to 83% of
respondents used any pesticides including banned and
highly persistent brands as long as they appeared to
solve the pest problem at hand. This served to increase
the hazards and risks associated with the use of these
agro-chemicals.
As far as education and training levels were concerned, results indicated that training and not level of
formal education seemed to influence safe use of pesticides (Table 2). Lack of training was identified as the
single most important factor determining adoption of
safety behaviours when handling pesticides. Over 69%
of the respondents felt that they had no adequate information regarding pesticide hazards to be able to make
safe use decisions. Pesticide promoters were biased in
their delivery of information regarding pesticides. A
lot of emphasis was put on the economic gains associated with pesticides use, while their hazards to human
health and the environment were avoided.
Regarding timing of application, at least 64% of the
respondents sprayed pesticides in any weather conditions. This was common among farmers with relatively
large farm sizes. Such farms required higher volumes
Table 1 Pest control methods most frequently used in Sagana
Pest control method
% frequency
Synthetic chemicals
Cultural
Integrated pest management (rPM)
96
2
2
of pesticides, which had to be done within a tight time
schedule. This tended to ignore prevailing weather
conditions. Further, up to 53% of the farmers believed
that using higher dosages of animal-based pesticides to
control crop pests was more effective. Similarly, due to
misconceptions, farmers also applied crop pesticides to
get rid of ticks. In this way it would be difficult to use
recommended rates, with the consequence of increased
health and environmental hazards.
Only about 11% of the farmers interviewed were
involved in calibration of their application equipments
(Fig. I). Most knapsack sprayers used spilled their contents, had loose fitting caps and others leaked from
below. Up to 84% of interviewed farmers lacked proper
pesticides measuring containers raising questions on
the accuracy of pesticides measurement in the area.
About 52% of the farmers interviewed disposed empty
containers to the environment. Bearing in mind that
24% of all the containers were rinsed less than three
times before disposal, it can be deduced that these
empty containers had pesticide residues. Surplus application mixes were disposed to the environment, while
knapsack sprayers were washed near streams thus
contaminating the water.
Pearson correlation analysis showed that lowincome farmers were more vulnerable to pesticide
hazards than higher income farmers who engaged
less in risky behaviour when dealing with pesticides
(Table 3).
There was a positive correlation between farmers
spraying during windy weather and practicing other
risky behaviours (Table 4). These included wetting of
self with pesticides (r = 0.83, n = 138, p = 0.01),
smoking or eating while handling pesticides (r = 0.37,
n = 138, p = 0.01), not changing work clothes
(r = 0.46, n = 138, p = 0.01) and not bathing after
work (r = 0.46, n = 138, p = 0.01). This means that
farmers engaging in one hazardous pesticide handling
Table 2 Pearson's correlation of farmers' training and education against various behaviours associated
WIth human health and the environmental safety
Behaviour
Farmers' training
r value
Spray during windy weather
Touch pesticides with bare hands
Wet themselves with pesticide mixtures
Touch crops after spraying
Use unlabelled pesticides
-0.18*
-0.21*
-0.26**
-0.18*
-0.21 *
* (r) values significant at p
0.05; ** (r) values significant at p = 0.01
Farmers education
r value
-0.1
-0.09
-0.14
-0.05
-0.09
996
P.Mureithi et al.
Fig. 1 Farmers' pesticides
handling behaviour hazardous
to the environment
Dispose Rinsate to the Environment
Rinse Empty Containers Less than 3 times
e::I
~
Dispose Surplus Mixes to the Environment
I
e
.~ Dispose Empty Containers to the Environment
..c
•..
~
Lack Appropriate
I
Measuring Containers
Do Not Calibrate Knapsack Sprayers
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
w
~
@
W
Spray During Any Weather
o
100
IW
% Frequency
Table 3 Pearson's
correlation
coefficient
(r) for farmers
income and practicing risky pesticide handling behaviours
Pearson's correlation
coefficient (r) n = 140
Behaviour
Use of pesticides
without
labels
Reuse of work clothes
Mixing work clothes with other
clothes
-0.17'
-0.18'
-0.22"
Smoked, ate or drank while
handling pesticides
-0.22"
Not taking bath after work
-0.20'
-0.17*
Spray during windy weather
at p = 0.05; "(r)
OCr) values significant
p=O.OI
values
significant
at
Table 4 Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) for farmers spraying during windy weather and practicing other risky behaviours
Pearson's correlation
coefficient (r) n = 140
Behaviour
Wet self with pesticides
Smoked or ate while handling
pesticides
Used pesticides
without
0.83
0.37
labels
0.91
with bare hands
0.91
Touched
pesticides
Brought
field
home unwashed
crops from
Reused work clothes
Stepped on pesticides
0.76
0.42
with bare feet
0.86
Not bathed after work
0.50
Swallowed
0.67
sweat during spraying
Mixed work clothes with other clothes
All (r) values significant
0.59
at p = 0.01 level of confidence
behaviour were more likely to engage in another leading to multiple pesticide exposure. The majority of
respondents (96%) sprayed during windy weather as
shown in Fig. I which led to increased, risks of
inhalation and wetting self with application mixtures.
This was attributed to ignorance and limited access to
protective gear.
Further, 96% of the respondents reported using pesticides without labels, which effectively denied farmers' essential information on safety requirements. This
was because pesticide vendors repackaged products
into plastic bags or bottles for sale in small quantities.
Majority of the farmers stored pesticides in their living
rooms, which posed poisoning danger to unsuspecting
household members, particularly children.
More than 90% of the respondents admitted mixing
pesticides with bare hands. In addition to this, spraying of pesticides without protective gear was common. More than 80% of respondents did not change
their clothes after work. Where changing occurred,
the clothes were casually mixed with other family
wear thus exposing other household members like
children to pesticide hazards. Over 83% of the interviewed respondents ate food, smoked or carried out
both activities during pesticides handling. Reuse of
empty containers as receptacles for household food
products (sugar, milk and salt) was practiced by 75%
of all respondents. This increased the risk of food contamination, poisoning and endangered health to the
households.
More than 90% of respondents indicated that pesticides caused harm to the environment and could also
harm people. This was, however, based on indicators
that communicated lost opportunity for timely interventions such as cases of death or long-term illnesses
and livestock deaths after pesticide exposure. Due to
limited use of respiratory masks, it was no surprise
that the highest number of respondents (25%) experienced breathing problems after exposure to pesticides.
Other symptoms included skin problems (burns and
abrasions) and eye problems, which they attributed to
Assessment of Occupational
Stomach problems
Thirst
E
Fatigue
i
rn
997
::::J
:=J
Deaths/Suicide
~'"
Safety Concerns
==:J
==:J
Eye Problems
Headaches
Nausea
I
Chest Pains
I
Skin Problems
I
I
10
15
Breathing Problems
o
5
20
25
after
handling
30
% Frequency
Fig. 2 Symptoms
pesticides
experienced
by
farmers
chronic exposure to pesticides. Chest pains, nausea,
headaches, fatigue thirst and stomach problems were
also reported (Fig. 2).
The use of protective gear in the area was very low
(Fig. 3). Over 69% of the total respondents took no
action to protect themselves or the environment from
pesticide hazards. Individuals who took no action to
protect themselves were either ignorant of pesticide
hazards or believed that they had no ability to protect themselves from the hazards leaving everything to
God.
Among the farmers who used protection gear, none
used a complete set. At 26%, gumboots were the most
frequently used protective gear notably to protect the
farmers from mud during rainy seasons and not necessarily from pesticides exposure through the feet.
Hand gloves were used by 19% of the respondents.
Overalls were used by 16% of the respondents, in many
cases these overalls were torn and in bad condition to
guarantee protection. Respiratory masks were used by
only 12% of the respondents.
Up to 85% of the respondents indicated that the
recommended pesticides were too costly. The cost of
purchasing personnel protective gears and construction
of prescribed storage and incineration facilities were
equally prohibitive. Combined, these factors reduced
the adoption of safety enhancing behaviour in pesticide use.
There was very little awareness of the longterm effects (chronic) of pesticides exposure. Victims
sought medication for either acute poisoning cases or
where chronic exposure led to serious illnesses that
prevented the victims from going on with their dayto-day activities. Not going to seek medical attention
was the misconception that the symptoms are inconsequential, last for a short time and are not serious. Milk
was often used in treating exposure, while traditional
herbs were used to treat later symptoms.
Conclusions
Although aware of the environmental and human
safety hazards associated with pesticides use, the community and its environment remained vulnerable to
pesticide hazards largely due to lack of adequate information about safe use, handling, appropriate doses, and
handling procedures. Perception of the protective gear
as expensive made farmers to generally avoid using
them. In addition, messages that reached farmers from
pesticide manufacturers were only intended to promote
sales at the expense of potential environmental and
human health risks associated with pesticides use.
A significant proportion of the farming population deliberately exceeded recommended pesticide
Wear Respiratory Masks
Take Milk After Spraying
~
Wear Overalls
I
Wear Gloves
I
Wear Gumboots
I
Take no Action
Fig.3 Sagana farmers'
personal protective practices
o
10
20
30
40
% Frequency
50
60
70
80
P.Mureithi et al.
998
dosage in an attempt to increase their effectiveness.
They failed to calibrate application equipments, lacked
appropriate pesticide measuring containers to guarantee recommended dosages, sprayed during any weather
and disposed surplus chemicals and empty containers
anywhere. Hazards to human health included failure to
use personal protective equipments, eating and smoking while handling pesticides, reuse of empty containers to store food products and mixing pesticides with
bare hands. There was prolonged exposure as few used
overalls, boots, respiratory masks and gloves while
majority wore unwashed and contaminated clothing.
Recommendations
• Safe use and handling of pesticides can be achieved
with increased level of safety awareness through
on-farm training among the users. This awareness should address users' perceptions, attitudes
and behaviour towards pesticides at all stages of
pesticide life cycle.
• Principles of IPM, scouting and use of nonchemical measures to keep pest populations below
damaging levels should be promoted so as to
enhance the safety of resource poor farmers.
• The government should provide leadership in revising existing pesticide legislation with the special
conditions of small-scale farmers in mind such as
the need for smaller quantities affordable by farmers. This would reduce repacking at the farm level.
• Strategic extension services involving agricultural
officers and environmental officers are needed to
continuously influence farmers positively on pesticide use and handling.
• Adequate participatory monitoring systems should
be put in place so that hazardous pesticides and handling practices are eliminated before a lot of damage
to the environment or a large number of people are
affected.
Acknowledgements Many thanks are extended to the Sagan a
community for their overwhelming support and cooperation during the study and to all family members, friends and colleagues
who assisted in all ways towards the completion of this study.
References
Garcia AM (1998) Occupational exposure to pesticides and congenital malformations: a review of mechanisms, methods,
and results. Am J lnd Med 33:232-240
Government of Kenya (2001) The 1999 population and housing
census. Central Bureau of Statistics, Vol. I Jan 2001
Government of Kenya (2003) Nyeri District Development
Plan 2002-2008, Effective Management for Sustainable
Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction. Central bureau of
statistics, Nairobi
ILO (1999) The ILO programme on occupational safety and
health in agriculture. International Labour Office, Geneva
Jaffee S, van der Meer K, Henson S, de Haan C, Sewadeh M,
Ignacio L, Lamb J, Lisazo MB (2005) Food-safety and agricultural health standards: challenges and opportunities for
developing countries export. The World Bank, Washington,
DC
Kanja L, Skaare JU, Nafstad I, Maitai CK, Lokken P (1988)
Organochlorine pesticides in human milk from different
areas of Kenya 1983-1985. J Toxicol Environ Health
19:449-464
Moses M, Johnson ES, Anger WK, Burse VW, Horstman SW,
Jackson RJ, Lewis RG, Maddy KT, McConnell R, Meggs WJ
et al. (1993) Environmental equity and pesticide exposure.
J Environ Ind Health 9:913-959
National Environment Management Authority (2005) State of
Environment Report 2004. NEMA Secretariat, Nairobi
Saleemi NA (1997) Statistics simplified. NA Saleemi Publishers,
Nairobi
UK Pesticide Residue Committed (2005). Minutes of the meeting of the pesticide residues committee (PRC) on 2 February
2005. Pesticide safety directorate, London
UNEP (1985) Africa environment outlook, past, present and
future perspectives. UNEP Secretariat, Nairobi
Wandiga SO, Yugi PO, Barasa MW, Jumba 10, Lalah JO (2002)
The distribution of organochlorine pesticides in marine samples along the Indian Ocean Coast of Kenya. J Environ
TechnoI23(11):1235-1246
WHO (1989) Public health impact of pesticides used in agriculture, world health organization document 86.926. WHO,
Geneva
Variation in Socio-economic Characteristics and Natural
Resource Management in Communities with Different
Potato Market Linkages in the Highlands
of Southwestern Uganda
R. Muzira, B.Vanlauwe, S.M. Rwakaikara, T. Basamba, J. Chianu,
and A. Farrow
Abstract
Many countries in Africa have started
implementing economic reforms that could lead to
rapid growth and improved socio-economic conditions
of growing populations. Uganda has been undergoing
major economic reforms through stabilization, economic recovery, and structural adjustment programs.
Adoption of market liberalization policies has favored
growth of private sector in the country demanding
increased production at farm level, which in turn favors
marketability of farm produce in competitive manner.
A study was conducted in Kamuganguzi sub-county
to assess variation in socio-economic characteristics
among households and level of natural resource management in potato production using two communities
with and without farmer field schools. Farmers used
livelihood indicators to place households in different
wealth categories. It was observed that most femaleheaded households were in wealth categories III and
IV. Most main houses were semi-permanent and farmers strived to use iron sheets to roof their houses due
to scarcity of thatching material. It was in community without farmer field school that had grass thatched
household in both wealth categories III and IV. Most
potato fields had no soil conservation structures to
combat land degradation in form of soil erosion. In
both communities trenches and newly planted grass
bunds were the most common soil conservation technologies. Beans and potato are the two main crops
grown for household incomes. Potato and beans production take the biggest acreage in communities with
R. Muzira (tBJ)
National Agricultural Research Organization, Mbarara,
Uganda
e-mail: nrrnuzira@yahoo.com
and without farmer field school, respectively, and level
of production and utilization depends on the market
drives. It was observed that communities with farmer
field school had higher potato yield disintegrated into
different usages and applied more fertilizers on potato
enterprise as compared to community without farmer
field school. The demand of the market to be supplied with potato tuber of not more than 80 em in girth
and the higher price offered to farmers compared to
open market is an incentive for farmers to invest in soil
fertility management.
Keywords Economic reforms . Socio-economic
Natural resource management· Farmer field school
Introduction
Uganda has been undergoing major economic transformations since 1986 through economic stabilization,
recovery, and structural adjustment programs toward
economic growth (UNDP, 2000) and prosperity for all.
This led to reduction of poverty levels from 56% in
1992 to 34% in 2000 (Benin, 2004). Cash crop farmers
benefited most dramatically in the improved economy
that reflected increase in cash crop prices due to extensive liberalization of export trade and removal of trade
barriers (Abdalla and Egesa, 2005). Poverty levels in
this group dropped from 60 to 44% between 1992 and
1996. However, poverty levels among the food crop
farmers in the country dropped slightly in the same
period from 64 to 62% (UBOS, 2005).
Although the level of poverty at household kept
on reducing in the country, there were some sections
A. Bationo et al. (eds.), Innovations as Key to the Green Revolution in Africa,
DOl 10.1007/978-90-481-2543-2_101, © Springer Science+Business Media B.Y. 2011
999
1000
of population still experiencing abject poverty (Benin,
2004), more so in rural communities (Muzira et al.,
2004). To respond to the urgency of poverty reduction
in hou eholds, the Government of Uganda developed
a strategic plan known as Plan for Modernization of
Agriculture (PMA) program, which aimed at addressing food security and sustainable agricultural development, trade, and investments (Abdalla and Egesa,
2005). This plan was designed to boost economic
growth, restructure and revitalize Uganda's exports,
curb environmental degradation, and enhance food
security at the household level. Since most Ugandans
are elf-employed, mainly in agriculture, PMA became
a central role in poverty eradication.
It was against this background that International
Center for Tropical Agriculture (ClAT) in collaboration with Africare-Uganda trained farmer groups in
agronomic skills of potato production in three parishes
(Buranga, Katenga, and Kicumbi) of Kamuganguzi
sub-county, Kabale district, using Farmer Field School
(FFS) approach. Potato production was chosen as community enterprise from the list of alternative options
put forward by farmers. The choice of potato production was obtained after conducting participatory market research (PMR), scrutinizing the market options,
and subjecting alternative enterpri e options to critical cost-benefit analysis. Farmer participatory research
(FPR) was conducted in soil fertility management
(SFM) and plant spacing to achieve the potato quality in terms of tuber girth required by the market,
let alone optimizing yields. After understanding agronomic requirements in potato production to achieve the
needed marketable tuber quality, participating communities started supplying 4.7 t of potato to urban fast
food restaurant every fortnight under agreed contract
which was renewable on annual basis. By the time this
research was conducted farmers had supplied potato to
the restaurant for 10 years.
Therefore, the study was conducted to investigate
the differences in socio-economic characteristics and
levels of natural resource management (NRM) in terms
of SFM in potato production between FFS and nonFFS communities. Non-FFS community comprising
of Kasheregyenyi, Kyasano, and Mayengo is in the
ame sub-county with the FFS community and both
have similar biophysical characteristics. The non-FFS
community was not involved in the training in potato
production and management and had no link to definite
market.
R. Muzira et al.
Materials and Methods
Study Area and Characteristics of Farming
System
sub-county is located in Kabale district, southwestern Uganda. It is located at 1.35°S and
30.02°E with an altitude ranging between 1,791 and
2,000 m above sea level. It has a population of 50,312
(KDLG, 2002). The area experiences bimodal rainfall of 1,800 mmlyear, with the first rains occurring
in March to May, which are also considered as short
rains, while the second rains which are long occur in
September to January. A major dry eason occurs during June to August while rainfall peaks are in April and
November (Wortmand and Eledu, 1999).
The soils on hill slopes are ferralitic in nature having low pH and productivity while mo t valleys have
Histosols with thick topsoil that contains high organic
matter (Wortmand and Eledu, 1999). Soils in the valleys have medium to high productivity due to abundant
organic matter. In general, however, mo t oils on
hilltop and slopes are deficient in
and P due to
over-cultivation and erosion (Muzira et al., 2004). The
potential of erosion is high due to long and steep
slopes, which are intensively and extensively cultivated
exposing the soil to erosion at the beginning of the
rain season. The topography is very undulating with
most slopes ranging between 34 and 75%. Mo t of the
land i farmed and is interspersed with woodlots on
individual plots (Wortmand and Eledu, 1999).
The farming systems are biologically and agronomically diverse with numerou small plots of land
intercropped at varying planting seasons among other
characteristics. The average number of plots per household varies between 6 and 10, which are intensively
cultivated. The rich middle-class farmers possess many
plots and can afford to fallow some of the plots to allow
natural soil fertility regeneration. The plots are highly
fragmented and distributed on different hill slopes and
parishes (Lindblade et al., 1996). The proximity of
plots to farmers' homestead varies and thus some farmers stay far leading to longer time taken to reach the
plots before starting to work. The main food crops
grown are beans, sweet potato, orghum, and field
peas while potato and Artemisia are the main cash
crops. Livestock kept by the community is comprised
of mainly cattle, goats, and sheep, grazed on free range
Kamuganguzi
Variation in Socio-economic
Characteristics
1001
and Natural Resource Management
that includes natural fallow or crop residues (Mbabazi
et al., 2003).
Site Selection
Three parishes (Buranga, Katenga, and Kicumbi) had
farmers organized in groups, trained in potato production and natural resource management using FFS
approach. The three parishes had definite market chosen from the list of possible options. For comparison purpose three parishes (Kasheregyenyi, Kyasano,
and Mayengo) in the same sub-county with similar biophysical characteristics were selected as control (Fig. 1). Biophysical characteristics considered
included similarity in landscape, soil physical properties, and nature of vegetation. The soils are sandy loam,
which are well drained with some patches of sandy
clay on hill slopes and valleys. These communities
grow potato as cash crop as well as food crop.
Farm Selection and Characterization
Approximately
10 key informants that included
community leaders having wide knowledge about
well-being of fellow farmers in each parish were
invited in the focus group discussions (FGDs) to categorize households by wealth. Using identified indicators of wealth possession, participants categorized
households accordingly. The indicators included types
of main houses, number of plots, management practices, and labor use. Rapid rural appraisal survey was
conducted among 97 households in the study area
using semi-structured questionnaire. A plan was drawn
showing the location of each plot in the community to enhance identity of homestead. The interview
targeted both male- and female-headed households
though in male-headed households, women were also
interviewed since they spend most of their time in the
field and could understand the history of each plot very
well.
Statistical Analysis
The information derived from the semi-structured
interviews was expressed as average values for
socio-economic
indicators (e.g., mean number of
plots under cultivation in different wealth categories)
and percentage distribution (distribution of plots
under potato in different parishes or communities).
.:
(1-'\--.~~
Sampled fields
Fig.l
Distribution of sampled potato fields in Kamuganguzi sub-county
l
R. Muzira et al.
1002
The means and percentage distributions were calculated using survey analysis of group summaries in
Genstat Release 6.
Results and Discussion
Description of Households in Different
Wealth Classes
Socio-economic factors differentiating households in
Kamuganguri sub-county were explored during FGDs
based on the well-being of the household members and
resources in their possession (Table 1). Most households in wealth categories (WCs) III and IV had
neither permanent nor semi-permanent main houses.
Households in both categories with permanent or semipermanent main houses are those that were doing well
some years back but family members who were supportive died leading to deterioration of conditions of
well-being among household members. Children of
school-going age belonging to households in WC IV
were not attending any form of primary education
including universal primary education (UPE) due to
lack of basic scholastic requirements such as books,
pens, and pencils. In FGDs, children from such households were said to show protein deficiency symptoms
such as brown hairs and protruded abdomen. This category of households has few plots (1-4) situated near
homesteads. Plots that are far from homesteads are
often located on very steep and stony slopes and are
often low in productivity. Such households rarely keep
any livestock and therefore hardly use any farmyard
manure (FYM) as soil inputs. This category of households does not have means of transport such as bicycles
and walk long distances on foot. These households
are known to have no woodlots as source of firewood.
Their main source of fuel is crop residues such as
sorghum stover which is normally available after harvest. They are known to have one meal a day in most
cases after exchange for labor and rarely have money
in excess of US $2 at anyone time.
Households in WCs III and IV are not actively
involved in commercial potato production due to high
costs involved that include using new and clean seed,
Table 1 Farmers' own criteria of categorizing different households
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Nature of main house
Good and clean
permanent
Good but
semi-permanent
Small and poor grass
thatched
Means of transport
Has a vehicle or
bicycle
Has US $1,S71-2,619
on bank account
Has IS-IOO plots
Has a bicycle
Has US $104-S23
on bank account
Has 10-14 plots
Grass thatched or
roofed with old
iron sheets
Most of the time
uses foot
Has US $10-26 in
the house
Has 2-4 plots
Has 4-10 improved
cows
Has 10-20 goats and
sheep
Has 3-S woodlots
All children are in
boarding schools
Has 1-3 local cows
None
Has 2-10 goats and
sheep
Has 1-2 woodlots
Children attend
good day schools
Uses hired labor 30-S0
times a year
Four meals (breakfast,
lunch, evening tea,
and supper)
Use FYM and
fertilizers
IOO-SOOfrom all plots
cultivated
Uses hired labor
S-20 times a year
Two meals (lunch
and supper)
Has one goat or
sheep
None
Universal primary
or secondary
schools
Does not use hired
labor
One meal in most
cases (one late
lunch)
Use little FYM and
not ferti lizers
2-S from all plots
cultivated
Possession of money
No. of plots
No. of heads of cattle
No. of small ruminants
No. of woodlots
Nature of schools
attended by children
No. of workers
No. of meals taken per
day
Use of soil
amendments
No. of potato bags
produced per season
'"
Use FYM and rarely
fertilizers
IO-SO from all plots
cultivated
Most of the time uses
foot
Has US $0-2 in the
pockets
Has one or few plots
around homestead
None
one
None
None due to need of
scholastic
materials
Does not use hired
labor
One meal and gets it
for exchange for
labor
Do not use FYM and
fertilizers
One if at all from all
plots cultivated
Variation in Socio-economic
Characteristics
purchase of fertilizers, and periodical application of
pesticides to control pests and diseases.
Households in WC I are known to possess larger
amounts of money (above US $1,000) on bank account
and have more animals compared to other households. They can afford several meals a day and often
incorporate sources of proteins in their diet. Just like
households in WC II, most households in WC I possess
at least a bicycle, which is used as a means of transport
within and outside the community. Households in WC
I can afford to open several plots of their own in addition to using hired labor. They normally use fertilizers
in potato fields that are located far from the homesteads
because organic inputs are bulky to carry which may
increase production costs. Nearby plots are normally
applied with FYM to improve potato yields. At the end
of the growing season these households normally have
100-500 bags of 100 kg units to take to market.
Distribution
1003
and Natural Resource Management
of Households
Distribution of households showed that female-headed
households ranged from 16.7% in Kyasano to 39.8% in
Buranga while male-headed households ranged from
60.2% in Buranga to 83.3% in Kyasano (Table 2).
Female-headed households were those of widows and
wives whose husbands moved to distant districts in
search of jobs and take long time without checking on
their families. Husbands who are always away provide
labor to tea plantations or casual work in neighboring
districts or Rwanda making wives play the leading role
in the homesteads. Some husbands are in other nonagricultural activities such as teaching, brick making,
or car driving outside the communities. In Mayengo
parish, high proportion of households is headed by
males. This parish is situated at Katuna border with
Rwanda where men are engaged in cross-border business and therefore commute from their homes.
Grass thatched houses were mostly common with
households in WC III (37.5%) and IV (62.5%) in nonFFS community comprising Kyasano, Mayengo, and
Kasheregyenyi parishes (Table 3). In FFS community,
grass thatched houses were only found among households in WC IV. The presence of few grass thatched
houses in FFS community was attributed to improved
household incomes from potato sales and due to
scarcity of thatching material like sorghum stover.
Sorghum is no longer a priority crop for most households due to its low market value compared to potato
(Mbabazi et al., 2003) in FFS community. Lack of
thatching material has led farmers to purchase iron
sheets for their houses. The presence of permanent
houses in WCs II and III in non-FFS communitywas
attributed to the support households used to get from
relatives before they died of natural causes or during the war of Rwanda. Similarly, households in WCs
III and IV with semi-permanent houses are mainly
for widows or wives who were abandoned by their
husbands resulting in deterioration of welfare of the
households.
Acreage Distribution of Potato with
Other Crops in FFS and Non-FFS
Communities
Crops most common with farmers include potato,
beans, field peas, and maize. These are grown in
crop rotation with potato in non-systematic sequence
whereby potato and beans become most common in
FFS and non-FFS communities. Potato was developed
as cash crop for the whole sub-county and its prevalence in the fields depends on market forces and NGOs
promoting it as a source of income for farmers. On
Table 2 Distribution of households in different parishes under study
Households
Parish
Village
Buranga
Katenga
Kicumbi
Kasheregyenyi
Kyasano
Mayengo
Rushebeya
Nyabyumba
Rushongati
Nyangoye
Isingiro
Rwakizarnba
Number
Female headed (%)
Male headed (%)
83
88
71
89
90
109
39.8
21.6
31.0
60.2
78.4
29.2
16.7
21.1
69.0
70.8
83.3
78.9
R. Muzira et al.
1004
Table 3 Distribution of households in different wealth categories in FFS and non-FFS communities
umber of household types in FFS community
umber of household types in non-FFS community
(n=51)
(n=46)
Wealth class
I
II
III
IV
-------------------------------Permanent
Semi-permanent
Grass thatched
0.0
0.0
0.0
100
100
0.0
0.0
0.0
17.0
36.6
26.9
19.5
0.0
0.0
37.5
62.5
(n=4)
(n=2)
(n=41)
(n=8)
Permanent
71.4
14.3
14.3
0
Semi-permanent
Grass thatched
5.7
22.9
37.1
34.3
(n=7)
(n=35)
Fig.2 Average land sizes
under different crops in FFS
and non-FFS communities
1.2
1.0
_0.8
ctI
E-
10 FFS
Q)
!ill NonFFsl
~0.6
o
« 0.4
0.2
0.0
the other hand, beans are produced for both food security and household income. The two crops including
field peas and other array of crops produced other
than cereals such as maize and wheat are alternative
host for bacterial wilt and is one of the major reasons
for its high prevalence in both communities. In FFS
community, acreage per household under potato production takes the lead of 0.55 ha followed by beans
with average size of 0.48 ha (Fig. 2). On the other
hand in non-FFS community, bean production takes
the lead with average land size of 0.94 ha per household followed by field pea and maize average acreage
of 0.32 and 0.28 ha per household. Acreage of potato
in non-FFS community is 0.26 ha per household.
In non-FFS community, bean production is popular due to intervention by the Kabale District Farmers'
Association (KADFA) to market beans on behalf of
farmers. Bean producers under KADFA are normally
given essential inputs such as seed, fertilizers, and
pesticides on subsidized loans. They are also entitled
for loans from KADFA when bean prices are low at
the time of harvest so that the beans are sold when
good prices prevail. Such friendly environment has
made farmers in non-FFS community put most of the
land under bean production. Potato is more delicate
Beans
Potato
Field
peas
Maize
Banana
Wheat
compared to beans in terms of disease attack. Potato
crop is frequently attacked by diseases such as bacterial wilt and late blights which most farmers cannot
endure if the crop is planted on a larger area. However,
the availability of market for potato at steady price of
US $25 per bag of 100 kg units throughout the period
of contract has enabled farmers in non-FFS community
put most cultivable land under potato production.
Variation in SFM in Potato Fields in FFS
and Non-FFS Communities
Fields in both FFS and non-FFS communities are on
continuous cultivation without fallow to break down
disease and pest cycles and rejuvenate natural soil
fertility (Fig. 3). High pressure on the land due to
high population (361 people km-2) has led to the
change of crop rotation sequence with bush fallow
(Lindblade et a!., 1996; Grisley and Mwesigwa, 1994;
Breyer et aI., 1997). In the study, it was found that the
period of continuous cultivation without fallow ranged
from 12 to 34 years with households in we IV in
FFS and non-FFS communities, respectively. Fields
Variation in Socio-economic
Characteristics
and Natural Resource Management
Fig.3 Variation of the
number of years plots under
potato have been subjected to
continuous cultivation without
fallow
1005
40
35
o wc r awc n
o we III mwc IV
30
..•...
25
0
•...
s: 20
E
:::l
Z 15
"
10
5
0
FFS
which normally rest for long (>5 years) under fallow
and look abandoned are located on very steep slopes.
Nonetheless, such fields have shallow soils and low
productivity (Raussen et al., 2002) and farmers prefer
using them for woodlots or grazing. Problems of land
degradation in Kabale are normally blamed mostly on
cultivation on the very steep slopes covering most of
the land surface, accompanied with scant measures to
prevent soil erosion (Bamwerinde et al., 2006).
This was evident in both FFS and non-FFS communities where grass bunds that were constructed during
colonial periods were destroyed. Proportion of land
without barrier is high with 28.2 and 27.4% in FFS
and non-FFS communities, respectively, and is a crosscutting issue in both communities (Fig. 4). Farmers
destroy grass bunds when searching for fertile and
deep soil that accumulate over time due to erosion
from upper terrace positions. Destroyed grass bunds
are normally replaced with trenches and new grass
bunds. However, at times farmers will leave plots
unprotected and this has resulted in soil erosion and
fertility decline on hill slopes. The proportion (20.9%)
of newly constructed grass bunds is lower in the FFS
community and this is attributed to the urge farmers
have to maximize the whole field for potato production without constructing soil conservation structures.
Trash line as soil conservation technology is normally
done after sorghum harvest. Nonetheless, the technology has competition with need for fuel, animal feed,
and mulch in vegetable production. Some farmers have
planted trees such as grevillea and eucalyptus scattered
in the field to hold soil and also improve its fertility through drop-litter. Hedgerow and dugout ditches
are not common in both communities due to lack
40
35
~
30
'"
0
c..
25
..•...
0
.g
20
"
15
.n
.~
0
10
5
0
Distribution of plots
with and without barrier
systems to reduce soil erosion
and surface runoff
NonFFS
.e,<'
Fig.4
~'<
'0
.;:.0
R. Muzira et al.
1006
Fig.S Variation in quantity
of fertilizer PK used by FFS
and non-FFS communities in
different seasons
45
40
I0
35
~
30
""
25
~
0
FFS
1m
NonFFS
I
E
ee
o
OJ)
eo
>
-c
20
15
10
5
0
Fig.6 Average amounts of
harvested potato per
household put under different
uses in season 2006 B
Season
Season
Season
Season
Season
Season
5A
5C
58
6A
68
6C
2000
1750
on
~
1500
0
1250
OJ
! 1000
0
on
.E
750
OJ)
'il
~
500
250
0
Marketed
of planting materials such as calliandra and localized
effect of dugout ditches on surface runoff and soil erosion. Trenches that spread across the fields along the
contours are preferred to dugout ditches as they are
more effective in controlling surface runoff and soil
erosion.
Although the level of using NPK fertilizer is not
consistent, it is generally high in FFS community
(Fig. 5). This is mainly attributed to the demand of
large tuber size needed in the market. Lack of consistency in the level of the amounts of fertilizer used
is mainly attributed to changing prices that are always
high (US $77-88 for a 50 kg bag of NPK) and its availability in retail shops. When prices shoot up higher
compared to the returns expected from potato sales,
farmers will reduce the level of fertilizer application.
There is a close link between increased land productivity and fertilizer application in most parts of
"
Stored
Consumed
Africa (Vanlauwe and Giller, 2006). Potato yields per
household disaggregated into the different uses put
to by farmers are lower in non-FFS community and
it is mainly attributed to the low level of fertilizer
applied (Fig. 6). Though market drive may facilitate
farmers to use improved technology to combat land
degradation and improve potato yields, NRM practices
may be hampered by scarcity and increased prices of
inputs (Nkonya, 2003). Farmers are willing to invest
in natural resource management (NRM) when there is
positive return.
Conclusions
Farmers are very knowledgeable of their communities
and local factors that could be used to categorize
households
in different
WCs.
Female-headed
Variation in Socio-economic
Characteristics
and Natural Resource Management
households are mainly for widows or females who
were abandoned by their husbands. Such households
are mostly in WCs III and IV. Most of the main houses
are semi-permanent and belong to households in WCs
I-III. The level of crop production for household
income depends on several factors. Community that
went through FFS and have linkages to profitable
market put most of the land under potato production.
On the other hand, in non-FFS community, though
growing potato for household income, most of the
land is under bean production due to intervention by
KADFA with favorable policies of supplying inputs
at subsidized loans and marketing beans on behalf
of farmers on gainful profits. In both communities
land is under pressure with continuous cultivation
without fallow and most of the pieces of land have
had soil conservation structures destroyed in search of
fertile soil and also the need for expanding the area
of cultivation. However, construction of trenches and
planting new grass bunds is becoming common in
both communities as a way of controlling soil erosion
and surface runoff. The setback is that trenches are
not always protected with grasses or shrubs and
therefore this requires farmers to keep on de-silting.
However, the distribution of plots with newly planted
grass bunds is lower in FFS community because most
farmers cannot afford to leave a stretch of 0.5 m to be
planted with grasses or shrubs. Most of the soil in the
plot is put to use for potato production. The level of
fertilizer used for potato production is higher in FFS
community compared to non-FFS community. This
is due to the market demands of high-quality tubers
in terms of girth. In non-FFS community, farmers
use fertilizers on beans and this is because of the
intervention by KADFA to improve household income
through marketing beans. Fertilizers and other inputs
are given to farmers on subsidized loans. Therefore,
policies such as favorable policies and availability of
profitable markets for farmers produce are incentives
to fertilizer use and have an impact on the level of
production.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the
Belgium Technical Cooperation (BTC), International Center for
Tropical Agriculture, and Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility
Institute of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture
(TSBF-CIAT) for funding the study. Sincere thanks go to farmers in both FFS and non-FFS communities for their invaluable
time accorded to the authors during after this study. Lastly, the
authors would like to extend their gratitude to the enumerators
1007
Charity, Edmond, Darnalie, Grace, Patience, and Dustan for having persevered the terrain while looking for farmers in their plots
that were scattered all over the different hills.
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