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12 – Notes on Sociology
Historical Background of Sociology
Origin of Sociology
The history of the present society is very old but short. Therefore, it is one of the
youngest as well as one of the oldest of the social sciences. The present society and
culture have passed many ups and downs from the ancient time. Sociology, the
science which studies about society and its components, emerged only during the
19th century. The study of social activities, interrelationship and social system upto
this period were included within other social sciences like political science,
population, psychology etc. thinkers and philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Manu,
Kautilya etc. talked about social phenomenon but there was no separate science to
study about society. There was lack of the specific social sciences as the complexity
of the society increased. Republic, politics, Arthashastra, the smriti and vanalects are
supposed as ancient source of social thought, the pure study of sociology was
impossible. Therefore, to understand and study about sociology, we must go through
its ancient history. This science was coined in 1838 by the father of sociology,
Auguste Comte, to fulfill the lack of a separate science to study about society and
sociology. He claimed that it would study about social relationship behavior activities
and social structure. Therefore, sociology has got a very long and stepwise history.
1st Stage
The first stage of sociological development governs the period before A.D. there were
no special thinkers regarding sociology. The ideologies of the philosophers are
important because these were shared by the social thinkers later on. Regarding the
role of the western thinkers and philosophers, Plato and Aristotle are very important.
Plato (428 – 348 B.C)
Plato, in his republic, divided the society into slaves, philosophers and warriors and
talked about system of state and stages. He supposed the whole society as a
systematic and organized state. He believed there is interrelationship between
different organs of a society.
Aristotle (348 – 322 B.C)
Aristotle, in his “Ethics and Politics”, supposed human beings as political and social
beings. He talked about different aspects of political system which is supposed as
very important aspect of society. It can be supposed as an important subject matter
of the study of sociology. Therefore, we being the student of sociology are linking it
as an important aspect of society.
The eastern philosophy also included the concept of sociology in their religious books
in the first stage of the development of the society. Manu, in his “Manusmriti”, talked
about religion, culture, tradition, social norms and values etc of ancient society.
Likewise, Kautilya, in his “Economics”, talked about economic movement and social
activities of the ancient society.
Because of these social thinkers and philosophers though there was not the proper
study of sociology but this stage was supposed as the age fro sowing seed fro
sociology.
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12 – Notes on Sociology
2nd Stage
The second stage of historical development of sociology extends from 4th or 5th
century. The time boundary of this period appears very long. The bases for the
sociology were formed during this stage. The role of Sain Augustain (354 – 430) is
very important during this period. He analyzed the politics government, law of the
society and talked about the change of those states. He focused on the rules systems
and traditions of the society. His analysis was based on religion. There were other
Manu social thinkers after him. They were: Thomas Hotter (1588- 1879), john Lock
(1632- 1704), Montesquieu (1689 – 1755), Rousseau (1712- 1778), Immanuel Kant
(1724- 1804) who contributed for the development of the study of sociology.
Hobbs claimed that human does have sense and because of that it does social works
and the society functions. Lock talked about the freedom of human beings, their life
and the state. In his “Essay on Human Understanding”, he described about different
ideologies and functions that an individual of a society bears. Montesquieu, in his
“Spirits of Laws”, talked about the effects of government and climate, trade,
population, religion and laws. From the same, “Sociology of Laws” developed in
sociology. Likewise, Kont, Malthas etc. have important contribution in sociology.
3rd and Modern Stage
This stage is supposed as the last and modern stage of the development of
sociology. This stage is very important not only because of the emergence of
sociology but because of the development of it throughout the world. During the
same period, the four founding father of sociology, Auguste Comte, Emile Durkeim,
Herbert Spencer and Max Weber made the foundations of sociology very strong.
Other social thinkers like Marx, J.S. Mill, Tonnies, Tateott parsons, R.K. Menon etc
did sociological analysis throughout 17th and 20th century. Some of the sociologists
and their contribution for the development of sociology are given below.
Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857)
Auguste Comte was a French social thinker. He is supposed as the father of
sociology. He studied and analyzed the effects of French Revolution. Industrial
revolution and Renaissance and found the lack of a social science that studied about
society. Therefore, he coined the term sociology in 1838 as a social science to study
about society. He wrote “Course de Philosophic Positive” (1830 – 1842) in which he
coined the term sociology and explained why and how sociology can be forwarded.
He has put forward some arguments fro analyzing sociology.
Law of Social Evolution
Comte has divided the development of society into different three stages:
a)
Theological Stage: This is the first stage of the social development. The society
and all the components parts of it were simple and the society was also very
simple. The people at that time did not have much analytical power. They
believed on invisible power and divine force. There was Fetishism (Soul) in the
beginning of this stage and Polytheism (Many gods) and monotheism later on
were in practice.
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12 – Notes on Sociology
b)
Metaphysical Stage: This stage was more developed than the previous one.
People started to believe that there was abstract and invisible power which
cannot be perceived with sense perception. This stage was more reformed
stage than the theological stage. They believed there was no visible god but the
god was ruling in form of invisible power. There was somehow development of
reasoning.
c)
Positive Stage: This stage was based on scientific analysis. Scientific
perspective was developed and applied for every event. According to Comte,
cause of any action and effect for the social action were studied according to
scientific method. From the same process the social system in the society was
based.
Subject matter of Sociology:
Comte claims that society is the subject matter of sociology. It studies about the
social structure, the process and law of social function. Therefore, sociology is the
science of social system and development. He puts forward two important ideologies
a) Social Static: He claims that a society is the united and whole structure of
different permanent social units like family, marriage, Kinship, religious
institutions, politics, economic institutions etc. Therefore, while studying society
one must study about these sub-ports clearly as permanent and static units of a
society.
b) Social dynamics: The social norms and values, laws, rules of society of the
present are the subject matter for the study of society. It focuses on the
changing nature of these institutions. The present society can be put under this
because it has the quality change with every unit of component parts of society.
It focuses on the changeable feature of social life and institutions. It talks about
how it changes.
Sociological Method
Comte says that method to study about society must be scientific. He was the first
person to claim that the sociological study must be scientific but not theological
thought. He believes if the method is scientific, the sociological research and study
becomes factual and based on reality. The structure of a society and its change can
be studied through this method. After that sociology became a scientific social
science. He talks about social facts too and says there are two types of facts.
Simple/general facts can be found in nay society but the complex facts are related to
concrete science.
Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903)
Herbert Spencer is a British social thinker/theorist. He was the first evolutionist who
developed Darwinian evolutionism in the society. He not only applied evolutionism
but also structuralism in sociology. He assumed a society is a set of different parts.
He compared the society with a biological organism. It functions in the same way as
a biological organism does. He wrote many books regarding sociology. Social static
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12 – Notes on Sociology
(1850) is his first book. Likewise, he wrote ‘Synthetic Philosophy’ and ‘Principle of
Society.’
Herbert Spencer and social organism
Spencer proved biological organism and the social system are the same. A society is
completely organized on the same system as an individual. It moves forward from
simple to complex, equality to inequality as in evolutionism. The process of change
and development in the society brings some social qualities. Because of the same
there is change in social structure and variation in social function.
Evolution of the Society and emergence of the state
The process of the evolution of the society has been divided into four stages:
i) Hunting and gathering stage
ii) Pastoral stage
iii) Agrarian
iv) Industrial stage
A society in the process of development must pass all these stages. There appear
complexity, functional difference and complex structural units and development in
the process.
Emergence of State
Spencer has talked about three levels of the emergence of state:
a)
Military State:
There were different groups of people in different places and societies. They
used to fight with each other. Powerful groups attacked the weak one. There
used to be class and struggle with different groups. Then the groups started
making leaders and there was emergence of state. The leaders either became
ruler or the military general. They started making armies for the protection of
their countries. Then there appeared the military state ruled by military leaders
which was supposed to be the supreme. That state provided peace and security
to the people. There was lack of freedom. The state was not for an individual
but the individual was for the state.
b)
Industrial State:
The military state, in the process of development, merged towards the
development of industries. At first, the state focused only on development.
Gradually, later on, the state provided freedom to the people.
c)
Ethical State:
After the extreme development of industrial state, the ethical state is supposed
to be in existence. This stage is hypothetical. The ethical state will be under
domination of the negative effects of material development.
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Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
Emile Durkheim was a French sociological thinker. His ideology regarding social
integration is described in his “The Division of Labor” in society (1803). He talks
about two types of social integration in this book:
i)
Organic Solidarity
ii)
Mechanical Solidarity
There is division of labor through these two processes, in the society. The ancient
society was integrated according to mechanical solidarity. There is division of labor
on the basis of race, religion, social norms and values, rituals and traditions. The
structure of society in mechanical solidarity appears as very simple.
The structure of the society gradually becomes rigid and difficult in organic solidarity.
There is integration among people through division of labor. Law and constitution will
control the society. Every individual has perfection and specialization because of
division of labor. There will be lack of social control. An individual cannot adjust
himself to the new work. Therefore, he feels bored, loneliness, harassed, etc. in the
industrial society.
Max Weber
Max Weber was a German Theorist. He developed micro analytical system in
sociology. He also forced for the scientific study of sociology like other pure sciences.
He opines that social action/works are practical works in sociology like practical test
in lab. For science…….. A person has interpretive understanding of social action;
he/she cannot understand sociology. Therefore, he claims to understand sociology,
one must understand the nature of social action/work which human does in the
society.
Prerequisites of Social action/works



Present social action/work is affected by the actions/works of the past, present
and future.
Social action or work assumes that there is earlier presence of another person.
An individual or society is essential for social action/work.
Every social action/works should be found out by the social actor.
Religion and Social Change
His book “The Protestant ethics and spirit of Capitalism” contains the religious moral
to get economic income increment in investment and earning more money.
Therefore, capitalism flourished in western countries. There is social change because
of industrial (Capitalism) development.
Weber and Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is a network of organisation which is in operation according to the law.
In another word it is a network where there are posts, their rights, duties and
limitations, the top, there is a person who provides leadership and others can also
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12 – Notes on Sociology
hold the post if they have capabilities. Therefore, Bureaucracy is an important part of
social system.
Weber opines that because of the complexity of society, there is lack of organization
fro smooth running of the society. He is positive for the emergence if bureaucracy as
the society becomes complex. He believes that the emergence of the state is
because of the industrial development of the capitalism. The state needs manpower
and the system to regulate it, which is supposed as bureaucracy.
Meaning, Definition and Scope of Sociology
The history of sociology has passed many ups and downs. Regarding the sociological
research, theory development and study, sociology is moving towards specific from
general. The exact definition of sociology has not been given yet, however the term
was coined during 19th century. Auguste Comte, father of sociology coined this term
sociology in 1858. He was a French philosopher. According to the construction of the
term sociology, Socius (Latin) + Logas (Greek) which refers society + study/science
respectively, therefore, sociology is the science or study of society.
This is the terminological meaning of sociology. To get clear concept of it, we have
the following definitions:
Emile Durkheim: Sociology is the science of social institutions.
McIver and Page: Sociology is the study of social relationship and the social network.
Elburn: Sociology is a body of learning about society, it is a description of way to
make society better, it is social ethic, a social philosophy, generally, and however it
is defined as a science of a society.
Oxford Dictionary: Sociology is the scientific study of the nature and development of
society and social behavior.
According to the above stated definitions, sociology is a social science, which studies
the process and pattern of individual and group interaction, the forms and
organization of social groups, the relationship among them and group influences on
individual behavior.
It is the science which does not only study about society but also about other social
sciences like economic, politics, religion, law, language, art and many important
aspects. Therefore, sociology is called as science of all sciences.
Then,
Sociology is the study of social group or social system.
Sociology is the science of society.
It is the science of social relationship.
It is the study of social life.
It is the science of social action and reaction.
It is the all rounded study of social patterns.
Characteristics of Sociology
-
It studies society in a scientific way.
Sociology studies about the social nature of man.
It studies the social relationship.
It studies about individuals and group interaction in a society.
It deals with all the socio-cultural activities concerned in every field.
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12 – Notes on Sociology
Scope of Sociology
The scope of sociology, being a social science, is very broad. If we try to limit the
scope of sociology, we can’t understand sociology in real sense. All the social
subjects which are related to wholistic social life are the scope of sociology. The
sociologists don’t agree for the scope of sociology. But we can generalize the scope
of sociology in two types as follows:
i)
Sociology as a general science:
Sociologists like Emile Durkheim, M. Ginsberg, and Sorokin etc. opine that
sociology must study the whole society and its aspects but each aspect must be
related to social life like economics, politics, religion etc. This subject must be
developed as a general subject. They claim that every aspects of society are
interrelated. Hence, only the study of some limited aspects can not be the
subject matter fro sociology.
ii)
Sociology as a special science:
Sociologists like Max Weber, George, Ferdinand Tonnis are on the side that
sociology must be developed as a special/particular science. This science must
be fixed like other social sciences. The subject matter for this should be the
new one which the other social sciences lack to include within them. Human
behavior, action, interrelationship must be the subject matter for this.
Nature of Sociology
-
It is a social science not a natural science.
It is theoretical but not an applied science.
It is an abstract science but not a concrete science.
Sociology is an independent science.
It is a categorical science.
It is a generalizing but not a particularizing science.
It is rational (based on reason) and empirical (based on observation) science.
Social Role and Status
These terms are sometimes confusing. They make us confuse which is role and
which is status. These both terms are important features of social stratification.
There are no equal roles and status of people as a member of society. Some get
higher position according to their role in society and some get lower position.
Therefore, these two terms are closely related to each other and it is very difficult to
define them separately. These two terms were first used by Ralph Linton in 1936. He
developed the concepts of status and role, which is now, used it in his book “The
study of Man.”
Social Role
Different types of people live in a society. They are different regarding their
profession and position. Their position and profession determines their status in the
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12 – Notes on Sociology
society. Their roles depend on their status which is decided by society. The role and
status are not in born qualities. The society gives them the role as well as status.
Their role is reflected there in status and status is the mirror where the reflection of
roles can be seen. The role therefore is expected behavior of individual members of
societies what he/she performs. That is to say, society expects our role according to
our status. The word role meant the ‘roll’ (move from side to side) on which actor’s
part was written. That is to say like in the drama role for each and every character is
already expected. As the success and failure of drama depends upon the character’s
roles. Likewise the smooth running of social life depends upon how efficiency and
consistently each member of different group perform his/her role in the social
system. The role is that pattern of behavior which a person performs in a society.
The following definitions will help us to understand it better.
Lundberg: A social role is a pattern of behavior expected of an individual in a certain
situation.
Dgburn and Nimkoff: Social role is a set of socially expected and approved behavior
pattern, consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position
in a group.
Therefore, social role is that pattern of behavior of an individual which is expected
from him/her in a society.
Characteristics of Social Role
-
Social role is universal character because it is found in every society in the
world.
Social role is social in nature. Where there is society, there are members and
they having certain roles to be performed.
Social role is dynamics because it changes when the position is changed in a
given group.
An individual performs more than one role in a given period.
Social role is closely related with social status.
Social Status
Status can be taken as the position of an individual in a society. Social roles and
status are closely related to each other. Role provides the status and status
determines the role to a person. To understand status, we can compare it with
prestige, position, rank and hierarchy in a society. Some of the definition will make is
more clear.
McIver: Status is the social position that determined for its possessor apart from his
personal attribute or social service degree of respect, prestige and influence.
Green: A status is a position in a social group in relation to other position held by
other individuals in the group.
Therefore, social status is the social position of individuals in a given group.
Characteristics
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12 – Notes on Sociology
-
Social status is a universal character because it is found in society all over the
world.
It is closely related with social role.
The same position of an individual wouldn’t be equal to all over the world e.g.
teachers are more respected in west than in Nepal.
The social status is dynamics. Change takes place according to the role of the
member of society.
An individual performs more than one status in one place and another to other.
Relation between Role and Status
The role and status are closely related to each other. One cannot be understood
without other. In a society, the status of individual is determined what he or she
performs his/her role. Therefore, they both go together. Fro instance in Nepali
society, the status of medical doctor is higher than others because he/she has
performed important roles in a society. Sometimes, the position is changed as
change takes place in role and vice versa. So, they are very close.
Harry M. Johnson while relating social roles and status says that “Social position has
got two parts; one consisting obligations and other consisting of rights. A person is
said to ‘occupy’ a social position if he has a certain cluster of obligations and enjoys a
certain cluster of associated rights within a social system. These two parts of a social
position we shall call its role and status.” Here role refers to obligation status refers
to rights. Showing close relationship between them, Dictionary of Anthropology
defines that “a role involves the acting out of status and role expectations in the
expected conduct associated with a given status.” Davis claims role is the manner in
which a person actually carries out the requirements of his status.
Despite the close relation between them, there have been some differences too. Role
refers to the obligation which an individual has towards his group while status is a
position recognized by a society or group. Ginsberg suggests that status is a position
and role is the manner in which that position is supposed to be filled. It is also said
that role is a process but status is the result.
Types of Social Roles and Status
There are two ways in which an individual in societies can get his role and status.
Famous scholar Ralph Linton uses both types of role and status, as follows.
(a)
Ascribe Role/Status: Ascribe roles and statuses are those for which an
individual has absolutely no choice. They are derived from the birth and
descent. For example; sex, age, kinship, relationship, race etc.
(b)
Achieved Role/Status: It is fully opposite role or status. They are those over
which the individual has some choices (much or less). These roles and status
are based on an individual’s effort and shill. According to Linton, achieved role
depends on individual ability. Thus type of role or status is predominant in
modern society and is constant with democratic ideologies.
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12 – Notes on Sociology
Anthropological History
The multidimensional study of human history from the past to the present is
anthropology. In other words, the science which studies different aspects of the
social life of human beings from the past to the present is anthropology.
Anthropology not only studies about the human history but also the system, rituals,
organizations, groups, processes, art, religions, culture, literature as well. The
human history which anthropology study is very old. Therefore, we find T.K.
Penniman’s book “Hundred years of Anthropology” (1935) as a reliable source to
study about anthropology. According to him, there are 4/5 stages of the
development of world anthropology. They are as follows:
Formulatory Period (before 1835)
Convergent Period (1835 - 1859)
Constructive Period (1859 - 1900)
Critical Period (1900- 1935)
Consideration Period (1935 - onwards)
Meaning, Definition and Scope of Anthropology
The word ‘Anthropology’ in English is derivation from the two Greek words
‘Anthropos’ + ‘Logas’, where ‘Anthropos’ stands for human and ‘Logas’ stands for
study or science. Therefore, anthropology is the science to study human beings. The
very long history of human being had passed many steps like hunting and gathering,
animal husbandry, agrarian and industrial stages. These all stages are included
within anthropology. Therefore, we can say that anthropology is the scientific study
of wholistic aspects of human being from the past to the present.
We can get help from some of the definitions given to anthropology to make it clear.
Hebel: Anthropology is the study of man, his works and races and customs of human
kinds.
T.K. Penniman: Anthropology is the science of man. In one aspect, it is a branch of
natural history and embraces the study of his origin and position in the realm of
animated nature, in another aspect, anthropology is the science of history.
A.L. Kroter: Anthropology is the science of groups of men and their behavior and
production.
Franz Boas: Anthropology deals with man as a social being.
Therefore, anthropology is a science which studies from the origin of human being to
the present. It mainly studies about human culture, language, art, politics,
economics, production system, behavior, nature system, tradition and physical
development and difference.
Scope of Anthropology
It has been clear from the definition that the scope of anthropology is very broad
because it studies the socio-cultural aspects which are formulated by human kind
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12 – Notes on Sociology
-
and very necessary to them. It studies them from their past to the present. All
aspects which are related to human cultural life and physical development are the
subject matter or scope of anthropology. There are some divisions for its subject
matter or scope. The main two divisions are:
Cultural Anthropology
Physical Anthropology
i)
Cultural Anthropology:
Cultural anthropology studies about the cultural life and culture of human
beings from the past to the present. It studies about the origin and
development of cultural traits or factors. Again cultural anthropology can be
divided into other sub-branches as follows:
- Linguistic anthropology
- Archaeological anthropology
- Applied anthropology
- Ethnology
- Social anthropology
ii)
Physical Anthropology:
Physical anthropology studies about the evolution of human being, differences
and develop process. Physical anthropology mostly studies about the existence,
development, differences, of human beings.
Sociology, Anthropology and other social sciences
Sociology, anthropology and other social sciences are interrelated with each other.
To find out similarities and differences between each social science, we must find out
the subject matter, attitudes and study method of all sciences. Here, we are going to
list then and talk about the relationship with sociology, anthropology and history. But
the relationship of other social sciences is also very important. Therefore, we are
listing all of then for our understanding.
Sociology and Anthropology
Both of these sciences are the social science. Both of them have their own history
which we have studied thoroughly. Here, we are talking about similarities and
different aspects of both sciences.
Similarities: Both of these sciences are social sciences. Therefore, both of these
sciences have the subject matter mainly based on society. These two sciences are
closely related in comparison to other social sciences. Showing the close relationship
between these two sciences Krober says “Sociology and anthropology are twin
sisters”. Both sciences study the events in the society, behaviors and social life.
Social organization, institutions and behaviors are the subject matter fro both of
these sciences. Co-operation between both sciences is necessary to understand
human culture, behavior and interaction.
There is similarity regarding study method between these two sciences. Both
sciences use empirical method to study society. Observation, questionnaire,
interview, field study are the common method fro both of these sciences. Many
countries including Nepal, sociology and anthropology, are the two sciences which
are under the same sector.
Differences: There is not only a similarity but differences too. These sciences were
developed separately because of different nature. Regarding subject matter of study,
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12 – Notes on Sociology
anthropology studies different aspects of an individual whereas sociology studies all
individual’s social life. Anthropology study is specific whereas sociology study is
broad and descriptive. Primitive society is studied in anthropology whereas modern
society is studied about small group of people and sociology studies the whole
society.
Physical evolution and formation of culture and development, language, literature,
kinship, marriage, family etc. are studied in anthropology. Social behavior,
interrelationship and effect are studied in sociology.
Regarding research method, anthropology uses field work study, participant
observation, comparative study, interview and wholistic method whereas sociology
uses survey method, interview, questionnaire, library study etc.
Sociology and History
Similarities: Both of the sciences are social sciences which study social events.
Sociology studies about the events of modern society on the bases of historical
events. History does not only study about ancient society but different steps of
development of society. Sociology studies change and development of society.
Sociology studies change and development in different stages of the society with the
help of history. Because of this there is similarity regarding subject matter and study
area. There is a claim that the history must be studied from the perspective of
sociology. The historical study of culture and institutions makes it clear to
understand sociology. The sociological study and the result today become important
source fro history tomorrow. The social thinkers opined that sociological study
method. The present events are affected by the past. In the same way, the social
structure in the past affects present structure of the society. Therefore, historical
method is very important in sociology. The present society is the history for
tomorrow.
Differences: There is not only similarity between these two sciences, but differences
too. History is concrete and sociology is abstract. History always studies the past of
social events, culture, politics etc. in chronological order, whereas sociology studies
only the present social life and interrelationship between present society and culture
with the community. History studies about war, revolution and power of state in the
past where as sociology studies about the present society and analyzes it. It tries to
find out the reasons of different problems and tries to provide solutions. But history
only analyzes the causes. History only describes about the group or an individual
which is in power and the leaders. But sociology focuses more on groups’ different
aspects of social lives.
There is difference regarding study method between these two sciences. History is
descriptive and sociology is analytical. Library study, stories, literature and articles
etc. are the sources of history whereas sociology relates interview, questionnaire,
observations etc. and provides analytical conclusions. The past events
The study sources for history whereas they are only the references for sociology.
Though, there are differences between these two sciences, but where there is matter
of comparative study of the society, there is close relationship between these
sciences.
Anthropology and History
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12 – Notes on Sociology
Similarities: Anthropology is the study of human behavior and the culture whereas
history is the systematic study of political system, government, war, conflict etc.
Anthropology needs historical subject matter and needs human society and culture
as reference. History collects the facts of the past and presents them according to
chronological order. But anthropology studies about the social organization,
behavior, different social events and culture of the ancient society. But both sciences
study historical aspects of the society. Anthropology applies observations, field
study, questionnaire methods to study area of anthropology. But history accepts
ancient writing, ancient facts, library study etc as a source fro it. But regarding the
subjects matter of study, they appear very near to each other. History focuses on
social events, revolution, conflicts etc. but anthropology focuses on back warded
ancient society, illiteracy, production system, language, art, culture etc. it studies
human behavior, culture and tradition etc.
Some Socio-cultural institutions and organizations
Marriage:
Marriage is a social institution. There is no specific definition to define marriage.
There are many communities, societies, religious groups, casts and classes. Because
of the same factor, there are variations in marriage systems and activities. As the
time changes, the system of marriage changes too. The meaning of marriage differs
from different religious groups. The meaning of marriage is different in the industrial
age than the ancient one. Therefore, there are different factors to indicate the
meaning of marriage. There is no universal definition of marriage, which can govern
the meaning of it through out the world. Some of the definitions are mentioned here.
Manu describes marriage as a sacrament.
Horton and Hunt: Marriage is the approved social pattern by two or more persons to
establish a family.
International Encyclopedia of the social science: Marriage may be defined as a
cultural approved relationship of one man and one woman (monogamy) or, one man
and two or more women (polygamy) or, one woman and two or more men
(polyandry) in which there is cultural endorsement of sexual intercourse between the
martial parents of opposite sex and generally the expected children will be born of
relationship.
Westermarek: Marriage is a relation of one or more men to one or more women
which is recognized by custom or law, and involves certain rights and duties both in
the case of parties entering the union and in the case of children of it.
Oxford Dictionary: Marriage is a legal union between a man and a woman as a
husband and wife.
According to the above stated definitions, we can come to the conclusion of marriage
that it is a social institution where the husband and the wife have legal rights to have
sexual relationship, to born babies and to grow up them. After marriage, the married
couples get certain rights and they do have some role in the society. But they differ
from place to place.
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12 – Notes on Sociology
Basic Functions of Marriage
Marriage is a basic social institution. There are many units and institutions in a
society to continue social system. Family and kinship are developed through
marriage. Some basic functions of marriage are given below:
Marriage provides sexual satisfaction and provides children to continue the
society.
Marriage establishes kinship and family.
Marriage transforms institutional customs from one generation to another.
Marriage provides social protection.
Marriage provides social validity and parents to a new born baby.
Marriage establishes mutual relationship between husband and wife and social
unity in society.
Marriage indicates division of labor in society and social rights and
responsibility.
Marriage provides psychological strength to a depressed and lonely person.
Inter-caste marriage develops caste/ethnic relationship.
But the above stated functions can be different as there are differences in type of
marriage according to the change of time. Basically, the functions of marriage are
the same in each society and culture.
-
Types of Marriage
The types of marriage differ from one society to another. Mainly the economic, social
and religious systems of a society are the factors of the variations of marriage. Some
of the types of marriage are given below:
A.
Types of marriage on the basis of numbers:
i)
Monogamy Marriage
ii)
Polygamy Marriage
iii) Polyandry Marriage
iv) Group Marriage
B.
Types of marriage on the basis of social norms and traditions:
i)
Endogamy Marriage
ii)
Exogamy Marriage
iii) Cousin Marriage
C.
Types of marriage on the basis of Western customs:
i)
Homosexual Marriage
ii)
Experimental Marriage
iii) Paper Marriage
iv) Love Marriage
D.
Types of marriage according to Hindu Sacrament:
i)
Brahma Vibaha
ii)
Arsha Vibaha
iii) Dulva Vibaha
iv) Prajapatya Vibaha
v)
Aasur Vibaha
vi) Gandharva Vibaha
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12 – Notes on Sociology
vii) Rakshes Vibaha
viii) Paisnach Vibaha
Forms/Types of Family
The types of family differ from place to place and time to time. Therefore to include
all types of family, some categories are formed:
A.
i)
ii)
iii)
Forms of Family on the basis of numbers
Nuclear Family
Joint Family
Extended Family
B.
i)
ii)
Forms of family on the basis of authority, lineage and residence
Patriarchal Family
Matriarchal Family
C.
i)
ii)
Forms of Family on the basis of marriage
Monogamous Family
Polygamous Family
Therefore, the types of family are different. The variation depends on either cultural
system, geographical area or other factors.
Kinship System
Society is a network of relationship. There is relationship with each component units
of a society. For the wholistic development of a society, there must be mutual coordination with each component parts. While studying in a society, we don’t only
study about the components of a society but the sub-components parts too. In this
sense, we can include family members as component parts of a family. The
relationship of these family members with each other is known as kinship. We cannot
limit kinship within a family. It can be the relationship beyond the family too. In the
ancient time, when there was establishment of family because of marriage, there
appeared kinship as well. Kinship is mainly established because of marriage, blood
relation and birth. The same relationship can be said as kinship. Here are some
definitions to make the meaning of kinship clear.
E.B Taylor: Kinship is the social recognition and expression of genealogical
relationship both consanguinal and affinal. Kinship system may include socially
recognized relationship based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties.
D.N. Mufumdar: In all societies people are bound together in groups by various kinds
of bonds. The most universal and the most basic of these bonds is human drive and
are called kinship.
Viahyabnushan and Sachadeva: the bound of blood or marriage which binds people
together in group is called kinship.
Therefore, kinship is a relationship which is established either by marriage or birth
and other methods too. Kinship is an inseparable component of a society. Where
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12 – Notes on Sociology
there is society, there will be kinship in it. From the general introduction of kinship,
we can find some characteristics of it which are listed below:
Kinship is universal
The establishment of kinship is because of marriage, birth and blood relation.
The use of kinship is different in different societies according to their cultural
system.
Kinship is the foundation of social unity especially in traditional society.
Kinship determines the authorized person to get parental property.
Types of Kinship
There are mostly two types of kinship. But according to cultural traditional,
geographical feature there only be varieties in kinship system. Here are some of the
types of kinship.
i)
Consanguinal Kinship: Consanguinal kinship is based on blood relation. The
kinship which is established because of birth can be included in it. For e.g. father
and daughter, mother and son/daughter, brother, sister etc.
ii) Affinal Kinship: The relationship established by marriage is affinal kinship.
Husband/ wife and in laws relations are affinal kinship.
iii) Others: The relationship established under freedom, adoptive relation and the
relation of disciple and teacher can be included within this kinship.
Degree of Kinship
i)
Primary Kinship: The direct and nearest relationship is included in it. There are
eight types of primary kinship e.g. husband-wife, mother-son/daughter, fatherson/daughter, brother-sister etc.
ii) Secondary Kinship: The primary kinship of primary kinship is secondary kinship.
For e.g. in laws relations. There are thirty three types of secondary relationship.
iii) Tertiary Kinship: The primary kinship of secondary kinship is tertiary kinship.
There are 151 types of tertiary kinship. For e.g. father, brother and sisters in
laws.
Social Stratification and Inequality
The society from the very ancient time, moved towards the process of inequality and
diversity. Because of the diverse nature of human being, on the one hand and the
economic education, socio-cultural on the other hand are the causes of socio
stratification and inequality. This is universal concept. This is supposed to be less in
the ancient society and more in the modern one. Such type of division to society is
related to stratification and inequality. In this sense, the process by which individuals
and groups are ranked in a hierarchy of status is known as stratification. Though it is
universal but the base for stratification in ancient society was based on social base
whereas the modern society is based on economic base. Here are some definitions
on stratification.
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12 – Notes on Sociology
N.J. Emeiser: Inequality refers to the condition in which people don’t have equal
access to the social rewards such as money, power and prestige.
Stratification refers to the ways in which these inequalities are likely to be passed
from generations to the next producing layers or strate of people in the society.
Ginesberg: Social stratification is the division of society in permanent group or
categories with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination.
R.W. Marray: Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher and
lowers social units.
Sorokin: Unstratified society with real equality of its members is myth which has
never seen realized in the history of mankind.
In sum up social stratification is related with society making the people into various
groups like higher-lower, rich-poor, educated-uneducated and so on.
Society is a system which is always in motion. The components are working within
the structural functional relation. Human beings are the key factor in it. Human
acquires inequality in personal skill, position, traits etc. which directly affects the
social organization, rules and behavior. It is because each human has different
desire, intention, skill, intellectuality etc. Because of these differences the social
system is affected. As a result there emerge differences regarding religion, culture,
economy, politics, social norms and values which can be called social stratification in
sociological and anthropological study. If stratification exists on the basis of
economic condition, that is vertical stratification which regards rich and poor, higher
and lower, powerful and powerless etc. In the same way, there are different social
groups and different profession. The division on the basis of profession is horizontal
stratification; there exists the feeling of superiority and inferiority.
Concepts of Stratification
Caste
Caste is a concept for stratification. The term caste is derived from the Portuguese
term ‘casta’ which means race or complex of hereditary qualities. The word caste
was first used by Portuguese traders to describe the people they met on the west
coast in India, when they arrived there in the 16th century and 17th century. In our
context, we know it as ‘varna’ or ‘jaat’ which also means tribe, family or lineage.
According to the some of the definitions:
Dictionary of Anthropology: Castes are co-operate social units which are ranked and
generally defined by descent, marriage and occupation.
Anderson: Caste is that extreme form of social class organization in which the
position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by descent and birth.
Therefore, we can say caste is the hereditary group determined of descent and birth.
On the basis of varna system caste is divided into a fourfold functional division of
society: Brahmin, Ksgetriyes, Vaishya and Shudra. These different caste groups are
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12 – Notes on Sociology
given different functions and responsibilities. Like in the figure, the people have their
social position in the society.
Characteristics of Caste System
i)
Determined by birth: caste hierarchy is determined on the basis of birth. Those
who are born in Brahmin get the status of Brahman and who are born in
Shudra, get the title of Shudra.
ii)
Hierarchical Ranking: The whole society based on Varna system is divided into
distinct classes from higher to lower.
iii) Endogamy: A person born in a caste remains it for life and dies in it. The caste
system allows one to marry from the same caste not from the outside. E.g. a
Brahman boy marries a Brahman girl.
iv) A Rigid system: Caste system is very rigid system. Members of a particular
caste are expected to follow their culture, traditions, norms and values along
with occupation. Individual mobility is impossible.
v)
Restrictions on relations of intermarriage: Varna system refuses the state of
eating together with lower caste people. Copulation with lower caste women
has created a problem for acceptance of cooked rice.
Traditionally, these are the characteristics of caste system.
modernization, the rigidity of caste system id gradually changed.
But
due
to
Class
Class is another concept of social stratification. Class refers to the social class in
sociology. Class is an ambiguous term that has been used loosely but not strictly.
But the common understanding of class is related to hierarchical position in the social
order. According to social order the prestige will be determined.
Social classes emerged during the period of specialization in the division of labor.
That indication of classes created nobles, craftsmen, soldiers, priests, slaves etc.
these groups are the constituents of classes. Therefore, in simple term, social class is
that group of people who have equal property, prestige, power, income, occupation,
education and qualification in a society. Though, there is vagueness in class
however, some of the scholars have attempted to define it as follows:
Morris Ginsberg: A social class is one or two or more broad groups of individuals who
are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior and inferior
positions.
Ogburn and Nimkoff: By social class we mean one or two or more broad groups of
individuals who are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior
and inferior positions.
But Karl Marx has given a difference view about the social class. He defines social
classes by their access to the means of production.
Here, Marx focuses on economic factors where as others do not limit only in
economy rather they focus on social, educational and other factors as well fro the
determination of class.
Characteristics of Social Class
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12 – Notes on Sociology
i)
ii)
Hierarchy of Group: The class is vertically divided into three classes as higher,
middle and lower classes.
Class consciousness: Every class organizes the other class. All the members of
particular class are aware of the fulfillment of its interest and tend to be free
from any type of exploitation from others.
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