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CHAPTER
FOUNDATIONS FOR
COMMUNICATION
1
L E A R N I N G O B J E C TIVES
After reading this chapter, you should understand the following concepts:
• We study human communication because it is skill-based and can be
improved, it defines us, has the potential to improve our lives and brings
our society together.
• The study of human communication theory provides clarity through
models of communication, variables, and powerful insights.
• Communication competence can mean many different things. We might
view your communication competence in terms of principles, contexts,
goals, processes, or characteristics.
INTRODUCTION
Are you an effective communicator? Most of us think we are. After all, we
have been doing it our whole lives. In fact, a study commissioned by the
National Communication Association found that most Americans rated
themselves tops in communication effectiveness, with 62% giving themselves
the highest rating, 95% indicating that they are above average or excellent,
only 4% below average, and 1% ineffective.1 Yet the same study found that
we rate others less generously. This points to a possible problem: Could we
be kidding ourselves when it comes to how good we are at communicating?
Do we sometimes characterize ourselves as strong communicators, surrounded by incompetence? But is that fair, or simply a self-serving bias? A
closer look leads us to assert that the issue is much more complicated than
these questions and answers suggest. Human communication is very complex. We might be strong in some areas, with some situations, with some
people, and not so much in other scenarios. This insight forms a foundation
for studying human communication. Explicitly stated: we all have areas of
strength and areas we can improve upon.
One of your authors was giving a speech before a group of faculty members. While telling a story he used the word “nauseated.” An interrupting
hand flew up in the air. Not the kind of hand that indicates a question; this
was signaling STOP!. The gesture came from an enthusiastic English professor
who announced to our author and his audience that nauseated is not a word.
She suggested he should say “nauseous” instead. Our author was overcome
with the heated flush of embarrassment, and lost his place and train of
thought. This example suggests several lessons for your author. Primary
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
among these is he has leaned strategies to cope more smoothly with
unexpected and embarrassing interruptions during presentations. This story is
offered to show that improving communication skills is a lifelong activity
that we all can benefit from.
Our first chapter introduces you to some ideas to help you enhance your
communication abilities. We will first consider why we should devote time
and effort to the study of communication. Next, we will consider some of the
body of human communication theory and what it might suggest to us as
communicators. Finally, we explore the concept of human communication
competence, which is the cornerstone of this book.
WHY WE STUDY HUMAN
COMMUNICATION
Frankly, we study communication because it is so important. Your ability to
communicate in life is key to your success, happiness, and potential to contribute to society. Here is a closer look at some of the reasons we study
human communication.
Human Communication Is Skill-Based
and Learned
We all have areas of strength and weakness as communicators. The good
news is that while there is room to grow, communication is a skill, like flying
a kite, driving a car, or swimming. We know communication is learned, and
you yourself are evidence of that. From an early age, you learned to influence
your mom and dad to get what you needed by communicating first with crying and cooing, and later with words and gestures. By the time you were asking for your allowance or the car keys, you had become an accomplished
manipulator of words and people.
We predict you hope for:
•
•
•
•
•
a happy and meaningful love life.
family harmony.
a happy, stable, predictable, and comfortable working environment.
a successful career
an opportunity to someday give back to your community
These are simply things most all of us want. This text and your instructor
are committed to helping you improve your ability to communicate to help
you get the above list and more.
How? It is quite simple really. We want to raise your awareness, help provide options, give you opportunities to try them out, and then get comfortable
with the ones that work for you. We call this process becoming competent.
In Figure 1.1, the process of moving from inept to mastery is broken
down into four steps. Learning all skills, including communication, involves
moving progressively up each step.
Chapter 1 from Mark Butland's Achieving Communication Competence: An Introduction to Human Communication
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
Unconscious-Incompetence. We have a habitual
behavior and do not realize the need for improvement.
For example, one of your authors may have learned
how to tune out his spouse when her monologs seem
to be droning on too long. He stops listening carefully,
although he is unaware of this new deafness to the
spousal frequency.
Conscious-Incompetence. An event or “aha”
moment brings to awareness that we are inept and
should improve. In our example, one day the spouse
realizes her husband’s lack of attention and asks for the
last things she has said to be repeated. Aha! She finds
out he cannot, and he is discovered. He always thought
he was a good listener, but apparently he now needs
improvement.
MASTERY!
(Second nature)
“Ouch!”
(Learning /Change)
1. Unconscious
Competence
1. Unconscious
Competence
“Aha!”
(Awareness)
1. Conscious
Incompetence
1. Unconscious
Incompetence
Figure 1.1
Conscious-Competence. By engaging in a process of investigating,
experimenting, and monitoring results, we learn and grow. The trial and error
can often be painful to the ego. In our example, your author might experiment with avoiding certain topics he finds dull, faking attention and feigning
interest, interrupting with questions, directly requesting an increase of quality
and decrease in quantity of communication from his spouse, and finally,
silently focusing on her diatribe by attempting to guess what she will say
next. He finds that the last strategy works well, and his wife does not leave
him. Now she can continue to be a verbal litterbug, and they are both relatively happy.
Process of Moving from Inept
to Mastery.
Courtesy of Rowan Manahan
Unconscious-Competence. The “right way” to proceed has been tried
many times and works well. The new behavior becomes a new habit that
replaces the old habit. Then we gradually pay less attention to it as something
else takes its place. In our example, his spouse no longer complains that he is
not listening, and in time she moves on to how he leave dishes in the sink,
and the process begins anew!
Now that we see that communication is learned and we understand the
process for developing skills, we shall see how our ability to communicate is
linked to important areas in our lives.
Communication Defines Us
Humans are self-reflexive in nature. That is, we have the ability to reflect and
consider who we are in relation to others. Symbolic Interaction theory suggests
that as children, we engage in reflexiveness to develop a sense of who we are
through our communication with others.2 If we were treated with loving attention and caring interactions when we were young, we came to believe we were
worthy of this kind of treatment. On the other hand, if we were repeatedly
scolded, belittled, berated, or even beaten, we would soon believe that we must
Chapter 1 from Mark Butland's Achieving Communication Competence: An Introduction to Human Communication
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
have deserved such harsh treatment. We would have formed an image of ourselves as terrible, unworthy, etc. Soon, we might begin to send messages to others that indicate we believe we are not worthy, like poor posture, lack of eye
contact, poor dress and hygiene, and comments related to our own selfloathing. Such self-reflective appraisals can be difficult to change once they
become ingrained. As we will see in our next chapter, messages we send and
receive interact with our sense of self throughout our lifetime. Our identity is
continually shaping and being shaped by communication.
Effective Communication Improves Our Lives
Not to give you the hard sell, but if we underscore the value of communication skills, you might feel more motivated to roll up your sleeves and work
hard in this course. Incidentally, as Table 1.1 indicates, motivation is primary
to college success, followed by cognitive characteristics like your IQ, and then
factors in your surroundings, including this text, your instructors, your institution, and your colleagues.3 This is good news to you. It means that if you
are motivated to work hard and engage the content of this course, you will
likely do well and learn a great deal. That is a good thing, because communication skills will help you succeed in many aspects of your life.4
TABLE 1.1
WHAT ACCOUNTS FOR SUCCESSFUL LEARNING?
Affect/Motivation
Cognitive Characteristics
Surrounding Variables
35%
30%
25%
Note: the remaining 10% in Bloom’s path analysis is attributed to noise in the model.5
College. Why would professors rate skills like interpersonal, listening,
speaking, group work and leadership as “essentials” for college graduates?6
They do because communication skills help their students succeed in college
and beyond. The Job Outlook 2011, a survey conducted by the National
Association of Colleges and Employment (NACE), reported two interesting
findings: first, employers want strong verbal communication skills in job candidates, and second, college graduates are underprepared in these areas.7 A
Fox Business Money 101 report asserts that “Presenting yourself well in person
can make a world of difference in how someone perceives you, both in personal and professional relationships,” yet the same report finds most college
graduates are lacking in this area. The report then asserts that “the only way
to hone verbal communication skills is to use them, especially if it involves
taking you out of your comfort zone. [Experts] suggest taking a public speaking class to get over your anxiety,”8
Are your classmates underprepared in communication skills? One telling
study found that over half of their student subjects lacked the ability to issue
clear oral messages that could be followed by others, and one in five students
Chapter 1 from Mark Butland's Achieving Communication Competence: An Introduction to Human Communication
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
7
failed in even more basic communication tasks.9 Your professors are well
aware that communication skills are needed in our graduates and will be
grading you, in part, on your communication abilities. If you develop these
in college, through this course and others, these skills have the potential to
bring you good things.
Career. Human resource managers, those with their fingers on the pulse of hiring practices in business, suggest
that the number one factor in gaining a job as well as
advancement and promotion opportunities is oral communication skills.10 Successful business executives assert
that they need college graduates with strong communication skills, an ability to work in teams, and skills to interact with diverse others (Graduates, 1997). The results of a
comprehensive survey of employers’ ranking of skills
most sought after in college graduates shows the first skill
to be oral communication, followed by interpersonal
skills, teamwork, leadership, and written communication
skills. Further down the list appear items like proficiency in field of study
and computer skills.11 Employers complain that college graduates lack these
communication skills.12 Possessing strong communication skills will give
you a distinct advantage in landing a great job and then getting promotions.
© Monkey Business Images, 2012.
Used under license from
Shutterstock, Inc.
Communities. You belong to many communities, including a neighborhood, dorm, or apartment complex, social groups, online communities and
networks, possibly a church, and other clubs. Not the least of these communities is your family. In each of these facets of your life, your ability as a communicator will help you and those you interact with to be more successful
and happier.13 Practically speaking, when we are able to talk with our loved
ones effectively, we are more likely to get what we want from them and help
them also get what they want. We are also more likely to feel validated,
understood, and cared about.
Capacity for Health and Happiness. Communication related variables have been found to be strong predictors in a person’s health and happiness. Regarding health, new research indicates that loneliness, for example, is a
killer. People who are isolated and lack quality interactions with others are more
likely to miss work, be sicker, and die sooner than their more communicative
peers.14 In fact, receiving persistent negative messages of hostility, domination,
lack of caring, and superiority creates stress, impacts productivity, and can lead
to physiological problems and even shorten one’s life span.15
Happiness is also linked to communication skills. According to the Harvard Business Review, while we tend to think a new house, car, attractive
mate, or new pet might make us happy, in reality, such things improve happiness for months, not years. Developing communication and interpersonal
skills are stronger indicators of lasting happiness.16 In fact, research indicates
that your self-talk after a disappointing setback affects other areas of your life,
including work, family, and even your lifespan.17
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
A comprehensive audit of research on communication led to the following conclusion:
When people learn to communicate effectively, their confidence
about their prospective success in interactions generally increases,
leading to greater fulfillment and enhancing their quality of life.
Lack of communication skills is associated with depression, anxiety,
shyness, loneliness, developmental disorders, academic problems,
and drug abuse. Conversely, the ability to engage in positive and
effective interactions enhances wellbeing, enables people to form
and sustain relationships, and promotes effectiveness on the job.18
Communication skills may be just what the doctor ordered, because they are
as important to you as eating right, exercising, and making other healthy
lifestyle choices.
Human Communication Binds Us as a Society
© Dmitriy Shironosov, 2012.
Used under license from
Shutterstock, Inc.
Free societies require constituents to communicate effectively if liberty is to
survive and thrive. Americans have been born into a political system that
places freedom of expression as a cornerstone of the political process. In
some parts of the world, citizens are not so privileged. Recently the BBC
reported that a third world country was sterilizing its women against their
knowledge or will. It seems that the government simply decided that it
needed to control birth rates and instructed doctors to routinely tie fallopian
tubes while delivering babies! (Antelava, 2012) Can you imagine that ever
happening in the United States? No. And that is because we place a value on
public discussion before we implement new policy. We have a right and an
obligation to speak out in public debates over issues that affect our lives.
Change and improvements come from willing and able communicators.
Imagine you are a parent. Your child comes home with
yet another fundraiser for school. You are irritated that
despite rising property taxes, your child’s school still
thirsts for cash. You decide to get involved in the local
PTA. Soon you come to understand the pitiful state of the
budget in your local elementary school and decide to
become an advocate. You approach successful entrepreneurs and businesses to solicit funds. In time, you find
yourself giving short, entertaining presentations at the
local Rotary Club, JC’s, and Optimists during your lunch
hour. Your efforts make your child’s school more money
and help you feel like you did more than just write
another check for yet another fundraiser. Sound farfetched? Research indicates that people who successfully complete a communication course in college are much more likely to engage in public civic
events.19
Oral communication is part of our democratic tradition. Our founding
fathers wisely established the First Amendment to the Constitution guaranteeing certain freedoms, including the freedom of speech and peaceful public
assembly. Since then, public speaking has served as an important tool in our
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
democratic processes and procedures. Over the past centuries, concerned citizens have gathered in city halls and town squares to hear abolitionists, suffragettes, and individuals who support the civil rights movement, the women’s
movement, and gay rights movement, among many others. During wars, we
have had both peace marches and anti-war protests. Speaking and listening at
this level is central to the American way of life. How we communicate today
as our society faces trying economic constraints and international terrorism
may well determine our nation’s survival.
We now understand that better communication skills will help us succeed at home, work, in school, and in our communities. The next section
introduces you to the systematic study of human communication that will
form a foundation of the rest of this course and textbook.
HUMAN COMMUNICATION THEORY
Now we will explore the definition of communication, evolving communication models, and necessary communication elements. But first, we must consider what we mean by theory.
We define theory as a systematic attempt to define, explain, predict, and
ultimately exercise some control over something. Our definition suggests several noteworthy aspects of theory. First, theory involves systematic study. The
field of Communication achieves this through reporting research to our colleagues. Peers in the field review articles before they are selected for presentations or publications in scholarly journals. The reviews ensure that a work is
grounded in relevant prior research, uses proper methods, makes appropriate
results available, and contributes to the broader discussion of a body of
knowledge. Theory requires:
• Creating conceptual foundations and hypotheses
• Identifying relationships among concepts and variables in order to
provide predictive outcomes.
• Focusing on phenomena that exist in the observable world.
• Relying on replication by others to yield independent confirmation.
Building theory is one major goal of the field of Communication. This body
of theoretical knowledge is used in textbooks like this one to suggest skills
and strategies that have proven to be useful. Now that we understand theory
better, we want to introduce you to some important theories in the field of
Communication, beginning with how we define the term communication.
Communication Defined
We define human communication as: shared meanings through message
transactions. This simple definition implies several important theoretical perspectives on communication, which will receive more thorough treatment in
future chapters, and are briefly touched on below:
Share meaning speaks to the ultimate outcomes of communication. We
communicate to share our ideas. Whether deliberate or incidental, we
humans are social creatures and communicate non-stop. Although we never
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
know what someone else is thinking, when they communicate with us, we
can make good guesses. Our shared symbolic interactions (language and
nonverbal cues) and assumptions help us create and maintain our society
and culture. How? Because as a society we share common symbols and
assumptions. Our ideas impact other individuals and our culture, just as our
culture and messages from others shape our ideas. For this reason, we assert
that meaning is a social construction that relies on message transactions.
Sharing of perfectly exact meaning is always impossible because messages
are always imperfect. We attempt to describe ideas that we hope others will
grasp. One disappointing fact in communication is that no one can ever
entirely grasp an idea you attempt to communicate, no matter how specific
you are. This is because of the nature of messages, which we will take up next.
Message is the information sent and/or received. Messages are symbolic
because they rely on interpretation to make sense. Messages are always imperfect in that they can never perfectly capture an idea completely, just as a map
cannot capture every aspect of the physical reality it attempts to describe.
Messages are representations of ideas that rely on people with shared symbols, channels, rules, and cultures to create meaning.
Our messages can contain both verbal and nonverbal elements. Additionally, messages always contain two aspects: information about the content, and information about relationships. If you listen carefully, you can
hear not only what people are saying (content), but how they are feeling
about what they are telling you (their relationship to the information). You
might even pick up on whether they feel fond of you or not (their relationship toward you). For example, when your biology instructor says “hi there”
and shakes your hand, you understand he is issuing a greeting (the content of
the message) and also take from his tone, smile, and grip whether you should
feel pleased or creeped out (relationship). Can you think of any human communication that does not have a relationship message in it? How about
e-mail? Text messages? Print advertisement? You may want to discuss this
in class.
Transaction implies the presence of two or more participants. Our transactions can be messages we send, responses to messages we receive, and
adjustments we make as we participate. Communication is dynamic and forever in flux. This means we are very busy as communicators. We find ourselves doing many things simultaneously, like listening, thinking, providing a
smile or nod, and so on. In the next section, we will consider how transactions occur by examining models of the communication process.
Models of Communication
Models are useful to us in several ways. First, they help us understand something by breaking it into individual parts. Second, they help us see how individual parts interact with one another. Third, they provide a common language for discussion. For example, when we mention “noise” in the future,
you will know what that means to those of us in the Communication field.
Finally, models have the power to help us solve problems. When communication breaks down, for example, a model gives us places to look as we
attempt to correct the problem. Over the last century and a half, three models
of communication have emerged, each with increasing complexity.
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
Information
Source
Transmitter
(Encoder)
Message
Receiver
(Decoder)
Channel
Received
Signal
Signal
11
Destination
Message
Noise
Source
The Action Model. This most basic of models was first to emerge. Taking
Figure 1.2
form from the parts necessary to transmit and receive telegraph messages,
researchers formalized the model when they attempted to apply it to the
newer, more complex technology of telephones.20 Although it was intended
for improving phone calls, communication scholars soon found it useful for
understanding and improving all human communication.
Put most simply, a source intends to send a message (someone picks up a
phone to make a call), which is encoded into a transmission (the caller’s
voice is converted into electromagnetic vibrations) and packaged in signals
that travel through a channel (the phone line) to a receiver that must receive
the signal (another phone), decode that signal back into a message that the
receiver can understand (the person on the other end of the phone line hears
and understands the caller). Throughout this process, Shannon and Weaver
note that there is the potential for interference in the clarity of the message.
They call any interference with the process “noise.”21
At least two limitations led communication scholars to improve upon
this model. First, the model implied taking turns. One person sends a message. The other receives a message. The other then sends a message. The first
then receives the message. But this is not really how we communicate. This is
closer to how two people play catch. Second, this model places primary
emphasis on the source of a message and the message itself, with little attention to the receiver, other than that they either get the transmission or they
don’t. This is problematic. One might infer from the model that if someone
crafts a good message and delivers it clearly, that is all that is necessary and
sufficient for effective communication. If that were true, every lecture you
have ever endured would still be providing information and informing your
choices in life. Well, they are, aren’t they? In light of these limitations, a new
model emerged.
The Shannon-Weaver
Mathematical Model.
© Kendall Hunt Publishing
Company
The Interaction Model. The next model expands the action model by
increasing the role of receiver and underscoring how complex and interactive
the process is.22 The interaction model emphasizes the role of the source and
receiver. They must connect via common ground, including skills, attitudes,
beliefs, social systems, and culture. Another important development was the
appearance of the idea of feedback, or a response to the message from the
receiver. We can characterize the interaction model in Figure 1.3.
The interaction model was successful in providing a more complex
understanding of how we communicate. It provided more variables to
expand our understanding of the process. Yet this model was also limited in
that it was linear. Like the action model before it, this model characterized
Chapter 1 from Mark Butland's Achieving Communication Competence: An Introduction to Human Communication
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
Encodes
Source
communication
skills
Decodes
Message
Channel
content
hearing
communication
skills
seeing
attitudes
touching
knowledge
smelling
social
system
tasting
culture
Receiver
elements
attitudes
treatment
knowledge
structure
social
system
code
culture
Feedback Loop
Decodes
Encodes
Figure 1.3
A Source encodes a Message
for a Channel to a Receiver
who decodes the message:
S–M–C–R Model.
© Kendall Hunt Publishing
Company
Cultural Context
Physical Context
Channels
Encodes
Decodes
Verbal
message
Verbal
message
Figure 1.4
3DUWLFLSDQW$·V
total experience
and self image
Participant B
Encodes
Decodes
(Psychological)
(Environmental)
Participant A
Decodes
Encodes
NOISE
NOISE
Nonverbal
message
Common Experience
Encodes
Decodes
Nonverbal
message
(Environmental)
(Psychological)
Social Context
3DUWLFLSDQW%·V
total experience
and self image
The Transaction Model.
© Kendall Hunt Publishing
Company
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
communication as a series of single acts that happen across time. Real communication is much more complicated because many of the variables
involved are happening simultaneously, not sequentially. The final model
addresses this shortcoming.
The Transaction Model. In 1970, researchers forwarded the model we
still use today. It builds upon the previous work, but adjusts for the fact that
variables interact simultaneously. It recognizes the dynamic nature of communication. In a single event, all at once we are sending and receiving messages, giving and receiving feedback, encoding and decoding ideas, and grappling to varying degrees with noise, among other things; all within the
contexts of our social, physical, and cultural experiences and attitudes.23
Examine Figure 1.4 carefully before we continue our discussion.
This model is valuable to the field of Communication because it has
heuristic value; that is, it points to fruitful directions for further exploration,
and it provides a common language that captures the variables, relationships,
and complexities of the process of communication.
Insights and Elements of Transactional Communication. We
noted early in this chapter that theory attempts to generate insights that allow
us to describe, explain, predict, and control. The Transactional Model allows
us to describe important aspects of human communication.
Communication Is Continuous
There is no clear beginning or ending of communication. To see the continuous nature of communication, consider nonverbal messages. These important
parts of our messages provide much meaning, as we will see in Chapter 4. As
you are walking down the sidewalk, you notice a friend of a friend across the
street. If we could capture your nonverbal signals in high speed video and
analyze each frame, we would see that your face slowly moves from a distant
and disinterested gaze to one of recognition and surprise, then blends slowly
to smiling friendliness accompanied by a hand wave, and then dissolves back
to a disinterested gaze as you return your eyes to the walkway in front of you.
So, where did the implied “hello” actually occur in time? Difficult to answer
isn’t it? This is due to the continuous nature of communication.
Communication also has no clear beginning because it draws upon perceptions and experiences from our past. An example here may help. One of
your authors, Mark, has a brief interchange with his son that goes like this:
Chris: Daddy, I like that new medicine.
Mark: I’m glad son. It is called honey. It is made by the bees.
Chris: It is the best tasting medicine I ever had.
Mark: And taking a spoon full of it each day will help you with your
allergies.
Chris: Will I bless-you still?
Mark: It should help you do that less.
Chris: Thanks, daddy!
Mark: I love you, son.
© wavebreakmedia ltd, 2012.
Used under license from
Shutterstock, Inc..
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In order to understand what Chris means when he says “Will I bless-you still?”
you would need to know that for as long as Chris can remember, his mommy
and daddy have followed any sneeze with a “Bless You!” Somewhere along
the way, Chris made the incorrect assumption that we were identifying his
action and telling him what it is called. At age seven, Chris uses the term
“bless-you” to mean sneeze. You must be privy to this history to understand
the message and Mark’s endearing amusement of his son’s comments.
We can see that present communication relies on the past, but it also
projects into the future. If Chris decides to share his new-found enthusiasm
for the honey homeopathic remedy for seasonal allergies with one of his
classmates, he will carry with him the reassurance of this talk he had with his
dad. He will likely even explain that the honey helps you stop your “blessyou’s.” At that point, we hope his classmates are gentle and kind.
Communication Is Inevitable
We cannot not communicate. Because meaning is created in the minds of the
observer, every action we make could potentially be viewed as symbolic in
nature. That is to say, whether you mean to or not, when you yawn during
class, for example, some might think you are disinterested or bored while
others might assume you were out late last night. Since others are always
making sense of what they see from us, communication is inevitable. Even
when we choose to be silent, we are sending a message that others might
interpret. When you are angry with your roommate and you don’t say anything about it, your roommate may note the silence and say “So, what’s up
with you?” He or she might further find your choice of not communicating to
be immature and passive-aggressive. All this meaning is created, whether it
was intended to be sent by you or not.
Communication Is Irreversible
Once spoken, our words can take on a power all their own. We will take a
closer look at the power of our words in Chapter 4, but here we provide a
simple example. In many movie and television courtroom depictions, an
enthusiastic and wily attorney makes a grossly exaggerated claim that places a
startlingly negative light on a defendant. This is typically followed by courtroom gasps and “I object!” Then the presiding judge says, “Sustained. Strike
those comments from the record. The jury will disregard that comment.” Our
sly lawyer smirks and says, “No further questions.” The implication is clear:
once it is spoken, the jury cannot simply forget they heard it. And there is
power in that.
Wise communicators consider what they say before they say it. There is
no way to erase what is said. At best, one can apologize, mend fences, and
move on. This is especially worth considering where communication via technology is concerned. Many people text or email private things to their friends.
They are actually communicating on record. Texts and emails are frequently
subpoenaed and used when lawsuits are involved. Similarly, pictures posted
to social networking sites can fall into the wrong hands and might have negative implications at work or home.
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15
Communication Occurs within a
Contextual and Cultural Backdrop
Because communication does not occur within a vacuum
(blonde jokes aside), we must be aware of the potential
of contexts and cultures to impact it. Regarding contexts,
we note that each of us carries a historical context. When
we talk, we might have communicated with one another
before, or it may be the first time. This affects how we
approach the communication event. Strangers tend to be
less expressive and more formal. If we are close friends,
we may be so familiar with one another that we can actually finish each other’s sentences. A social context is also present, and refers
to how social rules and norms impact us. If you met a friend in a bar, for
example, your conversation would be different than if you were speaking to
them at the reception following their wedding. Psychological contexts also
come into play. Some of us have a quick wit while others are sentimental and
somber. These and other psychological predispositions color our interactions
too. A talk with a mass murderer should be a very different kind of conversation than one with your school’s Dean of Students, we hope.
Culture is also at work when we communicate. We will take a much
closer look at culture and communication in Chapter 5. Here it is enough to
say that the way you were raised, the language you speak, the expectations
you carry, and the way you communicate your expectations are all dependent
on your culture. An important reason for students to seek opportunities to
travel and study abroad is that being in a starkly different culture helps us see
our own culture with more clarity. It also tends to help us be more patient
and understanding when we interact with others from outside our own culture. When people of two different cultures come together in attempts to
communicate, challenges ensue.
© Monkey Business Images, 2012.
Used under license from
Shutterstock, Inc.
Communication Variables. From our examination of models, we can
develop a new vocabulary to better explain and understand how we communicate. Following are nine variables with brief explanations:
Sender/receiver refers to the roles we play simultaneously as we form
and receive message transactions.
Encoding is the process of selecting words and symbols to represent
ideas.
Decoding is making sense of words and symbols others send us.
Messages are the content or information being exchanged as well as
accompanying relational feelings an attitudes.
Channel is the mode a message is delivered in. It can be visual, oral, tactile (touch), olfactory (smell), auditory, or any combination of these.
Feedback is the continuous back channeling of information from others
as we communicate with them. It can be immediate when we are talking to someone or delayed, as in an email.
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Noise refers to any interference in the communication process. Noise can
occur in each of the above areas, but four kinds are especially noteworthy for the problems they cause:
• Physical noise is any physical interference that causes distractions, such
as a baby crying or blinding sunlight that makes it difficult to see
someone’s facial expressions.
• Psychological noise is interference in our ability to think clearly because
of distractions, such as when we are preoccupied and not fully present, or
when we are upset over a poor test score. We then find it difficult to talk
to others.
• Physiological noise is interference that is generated from within a
source/receiver’s own body. Having a headache, stomach growl, or
sneeze can negatively impact our interactions.
• Semantic noise is interference while decoding someone’s message. Here,
the sender’s words become a distraction. Racist, sexist, ageist, (and other
–ists) words that others thoughtlessly use can cause us to disengage and
even walk away.
Contexts take into account the individual participant’s history, physical and
social setting, unique mental characteristics and personality traits that interact
with the communication event. Contexts are always present but rarely evident.
Culture suggests that each of us operates within larger societal groupings.
These cultures shape our communication with others and their cultures
impact how they communicate with us. Here we mean culture in its broadest
sense, including race, ethnic, religious, social, economic, political, gender,
sexual orientation, education level and more.
These models, observations, and variables will help us become competent
communicators. Next we will thoroughly explore the concept of competence.
THE MEANING OF COMMUNICATION
COMPETENCE
Our central goal in this text is to increase your communication competence.
But what does that mean? This section will take a close look at competence.
First, we offer a definition. Next we overview several key theories that provide
different ways of looking at competence. You will learn new ways to gauge
whether you are a competent communicator in the pages that conclude our
first chapter.
Definition of Communication Competence
We will define communication competence broadly as: Understanding and
appropriately applying knowledge and skills in interactions to achieve
one’s goals while preserving or improving the relationships among all
involved. By emphasizing “understanding,” our definition brings to light the
fact that there is a body of knowledge, theory, insights, and skills to be understood. We can refer to this body of knowledge as descriptive because it
describes aspects of communication. Our definition also places a premium
on the wisdom of appropriateness, given real life situations. To act wisely
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means selecting the appropriate strategies, tactics, words, etc. that increase the
likelihood of successful outcomes. Here, too, we find a body of knowledge,
which we could think of as prescriptive, in that it suggests specific courses of
action geared toward success. Finally, the last phrase “that ideally preserves
and improves relationships” suggests that effective communicators not only
achieve their desired goals, but do so in ways that take care of others
involved.24 This textbook will offer a balance of both descriptive and prescriptive because both are necessary for you to achieve your communication
goals and preserve your important relationships while you are at it.
Competence Theories. While our definition of competence is broad
enough to allow for our discussion, when it comes to assessing whether we
are competent or not, several theories suggest different methods. Each theory
offers a different lens or perspective. Each has strengths and weaknesses, and
none capture the whole picture, but taken together, we believe they will help
you come to a fuller understanding of communication competence.
The first view considers how well we function in two specific roles.
Roles in Competence. The National Communication Association
defines competent communication by first dividing it into two broad categories: speaking and listening.25 Competent speaker must be able to “compose a message and provide ideas and information suitable to the topic,
purpose, and audience; be able to transmit the message by using delivery
skills suitable to the topic, purpose, and audience; and be able to transmit
messages using interpersonal skills suitable to the context and the audience.”
Speaking CompetenCieS
A. DETERMINE THE PURPOSE OF ORAL DISCOURSE.
1. Identify the various purposes for discourse.
2. Identify the similarities and differences among various purposes.
3. Understand that different contexts require differing purposes.
4. Generate a specific purpose relevant to the context when given a general purpose.
B. CHOOSE A TOPIC AND RESTRICT IT ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE AND THE
AUDIENCE.
1. Identify a subject that is relevant to the speaker's role, knowledge, concerns, and interests.
2. Narrow the topic adapting it to the purpose and time constraints for communicating.
3. Adapt the treatment of the topic to the context for communication.
C. FULFILL THE PURPOSE OF ORAL DISCOURSE BY:
Formulating a thesis statement.
1. Use a thesis as a planning tool.
2. Summarize the central message in a manner consistent with the purpose.
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Providing adequate support material.
1. Demonstrate awareness of available types of support.
2. Locate appropriate support materials.
3. Select appropriate support based on the topic, audience, setting, and purpose.
Selecting a suitable organizational pattern.
1. Demonstrate awareness of alternative organizational patterns.
2. Demonstrate understanding of the functions of organizational patterns including:
a. clarification of information.
b. facilitation of listener comprehension.
c. attitude change.
d. relational interaction.
3. Select organizational patterns that are appropriate to the topic, audience, context, and purpose.
Demonstrating careful choice of words.
1. Demonstrate understanding of the power of language.
2. Select words that are appropriate to the topic, audience, purpose, context, and speaker.
3. Use word choice in order to express ideas clearly, to create and maintain interest, and to enhance
the speaker's credibility.
4. Select words that avoid sexism, racism, and other forms of prejudice.
Providing effective transitions.
1. Demonstrate understanding of the types and functions of transitions.
2. Use transitions to:
a. establish connectedness
b. signal movement from one idea to another
c. clarify relationships among ideas
The competent speaker must also be able to transmit the message by using delivery skills suitable to the
topic, purpose, and audience. Specifically, the competent speaker should exhibit the following competencies by demonstrating the abilities included under each statement.
A. EMPLOY VOCAL VARIETY IN RATE, PITCH, AND INTENSITY.
1. Use vocal variety to heighten and maintain interest.
2. Use a rate that is suitable to the message, occasion, and receiver.
3. Use pitch (within the speaker's optimum range) to clarify and to emphasize.
4. Use intensity appropriate for the message and audible to the audience.
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B. ARTICULATE CLEARLY.
1. Demonstrate knowledge of the sounds of the American English language.
2. Use the sounds of the American English language.
C. EMPLOY LANGUAGE APPROPRIATE TO THE DESIGNATED AUDIENCE.
1. Employ language that enhances the speaker's credibility, promotes the purpose, and the
receiver's understanding.
2. Demonstrate that the use of technical vocabularies, slang, idiomatic language, and regionalisms
may facilitate understanding when communicating with others who share meanings for those
terms, but can hinder understanding in those situations where meanings are not shared.
3. Use standard pronunciation.
4. Use standard grammar.
5. Use language at the appropriate level of abstraction or generality.
D. DEMONSTRATE NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR THAT SUPPORTS THE
VERBAL MESSAGE.
1. Use appropriate paralanguage (extraverbal elements of voice such as emphasis, pause, tone, etc.)
that achieves congruence and enhances the verbal intent.
2. Use appropriate kinesic elements (posture, gesture, and facial expression) that achieve
congruence and enhance the verbal intent.
3. Use appropriate proxemic elements (interpersonal distance and spatial arrangement) that
achieve congruence and enhance the verbal intent.
4. Use appropriate clothing and ornamentation that achieve congruence and enhance the verbal
intent.
The competent speaker must also be able to transmit messages using interpersonal skills suitable to the
context and the audience. Specifically, the competent speaker should exhibit interpersonal competence
by demonstrating the following abilities.
1. Demonstrate appropriate interpersonal skills for various contexts.
2. Display self-awareness as a communicator.
3. Select from a repertoire of interpersonal skills those strategies that enhance relationships.
4. Use a conversational mode through self-presentation and response to feedback
LiStening CompetenCieS
A. RECOGNIZE MAIN IDEAS.
1. Distinguish ideas fundamental to the thesis from material that supports those ideas.
2. Identify transitional, organizational, and nonverbal cues that direct the listener to the main ideas.
3. Identify the main ideas in structured and unstructured discourse.
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B. IDENTIFY SUPPORTING DETAILS.
1. Identify supporting details in spoken messages.
2. Distinguish between those ideas that support the main ideas and those that do not.
3. Determine whether the number of supporting details adequately develops each main idea.
C. RECOGNIZE EXPLICIT RELATIONSHIPS AMONG IDEAS.
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the types of organizational or logical relationships.
2. Identify transitions that suggest relationships.
3. Determine whether the asserted relationship exists.
D. RECALL BASIC IDEAS AND DETAILS.
1. Determine the goal for listening.
2. State the basic cognitive and affective contents, after listening.
The competent listener must also listen with critical comprehension. Specifically, the competent listener
should exhibit the following competencies by demonstrating the abilities included under each
statement.
A. ATTEND WITH AN OPEN MIND.
1. Demonstrate an awareness of personal, ideological, and emotional biases.
2. Demonstrate awareness that each person has a unique perspective.
3. Demonstrate awareness that one's knowledge, experience, and emotions affect listening.
4. Use verbal and nonverbal behaviors that demonstrate willingness to listen to messages when
variables such as setting, speaker, or topic may not be conducive to listening.
B. PERCEIVE THE SPEAKER'S PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS AND
INFORMATION.
1. Identify the speaker's purpose.
2. Identify the organization of the speaker's ideas and information.
C. DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN STATEMENTS OF FACT AND STATEMENTS OF
OPINION.
1. Distinguish between assertions that are verifiable and those that are not.
D. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EMOTIONAL AND LOGICAL ARGUMENTS.
1. Demonstrate an understanding that arguments have both emotional and logical dimensions.
2. Identify the logical characteristics of an argument.
3. Identify the emotional characteristics of an argument.
4. Identify whether the argument is predominantly emotional or logical.
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E. DETECT BIAS AND PREJUDICE.
1. Identify instances of bias and prejudice in a spoken message.
2. Specify how bias and prejudice may affect the impact of a spoken message.
F. RECOGNIZE THE SPEAKER'S ATTITUDE.
1. Identify the direction, intensity, and salience of the speaker's attitude as reflected by the
verbal messages.
2. Identify the direction, intensity, and salience of the speaker's attitude as reflected by the
nonverbal messages.
G. SYNTHESIZE AND EVALUATE BY DRAWING LOGICAL INFERENCES AND CONCLUSIONS.
1. Draw relationships between prior knowledge and the information provided by the speaker.
2. Demonstrate an understanding of the nature of inference.
3. Identify the types of verbal and nonverbal information.
4. Draw valid inferences from the information.
5. Identify the information as evidence to support views.
6. Assess the acceptability of evidence.
7. Identify patterns of reasoning and judge the validity of arguments.
8. Analyze the information and inferences in order to draw conclusions.
H. RECALL THE IMPLICATIONS AND ARGUMENTS.
1. Identify the arguments used to justify the speaker's position.
2. State both the overt and implied arguments.
3. Specify the implications of these arguments for the speaker, audience, and society at large.
I. RECOGNIZE DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN THE SPEAKER'S VERBAL AND
NONVERBAL MESSAGES.
1. Identify when the nonverbal signals contradict the verbal message.
2. Identify when the nonverbal signals understate or exaggerate the verbal message.
3. Identify when the nonverbal message is irrelevant to the verbal message.
J. EMPLOY ACTIVE LISTENING TECHNIQUES WHEN APPROPRIATE.
1. Identify the cognitive and affective dimensions of a message.
2. Demonstrate comprehension by formulating questions that clarify or qualify the speaker's
content and affective intent.
3. Demonstrate comprehension by paraphrasing the speaker's message.
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A competent listener must be able to listen with literal and critical comprehension.26 Notice how this view is more concrete. It enumerates lists of
specifics we must accomplish according to the roles of speaker or listener.
The next theory will examine competence by the environment, rather
than the role of speaker and listener.
How competent are you? NCA further clarifies what competent speakers
and listeners are able to do effectively. For each, rate your own skills. Make
note of any areas that you want to achieve growth in this semester. Write your
answers next to each, right here in your book. At the end of the semester,
return to reevaluate your competence and gauge your progress!
Views of Competence
© R. Gino Santa Maria, 2012.
Used under license from
Shutterstock, Inc.
Competence by Context. Following NCA’ s lead, we could look at
communication competence by considering where we must communicate. In
this course, we will discuss intrapersonal communication (self-talk), interpersonal communication (one-on-one interactions), group and team communication (one-with-several others), and public speaking (one-to-many).
In each of these areas, we could conclude that you are competent when you
demonstrate mastery. This is the most common approach used and is
Do you aChieve CommuniCation CompetenCe?
For each question below, circle the appropriate response for how the majority of your communication
interactions play out most of the time:
not
often
some
times
often
nearly
always
1. My messages are understood by others in the way I intended.
1
2
3
4
2. Others seem to find my understanding of their messages to be
accurate.
1
2
3
4
1. I am aware of and select my words carefully.
1
2
3
4
2. I am aware of and use appropriate nonverbal cues.
1
2
3
4
3. I seek to understand what unclear messages are intended to mean. 1
2
3
4
4. I pay close attention and adjust to nonverbal cues others give me.
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
2. I hold myself to high ethical standards such is telling the truth and 1
being fair.
2
3
4
3. I point out when someone is being unethical.
2
3
4
Understood
Intentional
Ethical
1. I communicate so that all people involved are satisfied with the
interaction.
1
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Chapter 1 Foundations for Communication
reflected in the organization of this text and your communication course. As
we progress chapter by chapter, we will expose you to the skills, theories, and
strategies that lead you to mastery in each context.
TABLE 1.2
SCOTT AND BRYDON’S SIX ELEMENTS OF COMPETENCE
Element
Example areas of competence
Self
Awareness, confidence
Interpretive
Accurately decode messages
Goal
Pursuing goals that are achievable, appropriate
Role
Appropriately responding to others, following expectations
Message
Clear verbal messages. Cogruency between verbal and nonverbal cues
Observable outcomes
Awareness of feedback
Competence by Goals. We might also see value in considering competence by the presence or absence of desirable outcomes. Communication scholars assert that we can examine the result of any communication interaction to
assess competence. When we consider the outcome, we should question whether
the message was understood, intended, and ethical27 as well as the degree to
which interactions demonstrate appropriate recognition of power and influence,
cultural sensitivity, and critical thinking.28 Thus, we could create a short questionnaire, such as the one on the previous page to assess your competence.
Competence as Essential Elements. Still another way to look at
communication competence is by considering what elements should be present. Similar to baking a strawberry-rhubarb pie, we have ingredients that
interact in a delightful way to yield something greater than the individual
parts could alone. One example of this perspective is developed by scholars
Scott and Brydon (1996). They assert that competent communicators possess
appropriate amounts of six elements, which are listed in Table 1.2.
Competence as Characteristics. Our final theory on competence
looks at the participants involved. This theory suggests that there are necessary characteristics for competent communication to take place. An exhaustive review of literature has led to the following seven characteristics:29
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1. Flexibility: Possessing a wide range of communication options that I
can choose from.
2. Appropriateness: Making appropriate communication choices when I
interact with others.
3. Fluency: Demonstrate strong verbal communication skills when I
interact.
4. Empathy: Easily taking other’s perspectives and listening with sincere
empathy.
5. Cognitive Complexity: Seeing situations, people, and issues from
many different perspectives; things are rarely black and white for me.
6. Self-Monitoring: Monitoring and adjusting to feedback from others
about my presence and behaviors in communication interactions.
7. Relational Orientation: Caring about other people’s goals and feelings
when I communicate with them.
Communication competence is clearly complex, as this brief survey of several
perspectives suggests. Becoming competent, which we now hope is your goal
in this course, may be challenging at times. While you have been communicating your whole life, taking a closer look at competence might point out
some areas that could use your additional attention.
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we now understand why we study Human Communication. We
know communication skills can be learned and improved. We also see how communication with others throughout our lifespan helps define who we think we
are. Further, communication skills have been linked to health, family and career
success, and overall happiness. Finally, the very underpinnings of our democratic
society depend on our ability to communicate effectively.
Human Communication Theory helps us understand the world by defining, explaining, predicting, and controlling our environment. We defined
communication as shared meanings through message transactions. We
explored three models of communication that pointed to a list of variables
including source, receiver, message, channel, encoding, decoding, feedback,
noise, context, and culture. Our models clarify several communication
insights, including communication is continuous, inevitable, irreversible, and
bound by contexts and cultures.
Finally, in considering communication competence, we first defined it as
understanding and appropriately applying knowledge and skills in human
interactions to achieve your goals while preserving or improving the relationships among all involved. We looked at ways of knowing if you are competent by considering several theories, including roles, contexts, goals, essential
elements, and characteristics. Taken together, we see that achieving communication competence is challenging indeed.
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ACTIVITY
Reading for Comprehension
Have you ever realized you have been staring at a page for some time but
have absolutely no idea what you’ve been reading? Very frustrating! As noted
in this chapter, you have developed your communication over time, and you
now see that there is more to learn to be even stronger. One area of communication that lends itself to immediate improvement for most students is the
way you communicate with your textbook.
Since you have been reading the way you do for many years now, your
reading style is a habit. We suggest trying something new to see if it helps. We
believe if you are like most of our students, it will. Pick a chapter, maybe
Chapter 2, and try these seven steps:
1. First, read the chapter outline and objectives and think about what they
could possibly mean. Linger on each item listed in the chapter outline
and ask yourself how much you already know. Now look over each
objective for the chapter and see what you think the authors will be
talking about for each item. In doing this, you are setting up anticipation
by playing a guessing game before you read the chapter. This anticipation
will help you focus later in this process and is very important.
2. Next, read the chapter summary at the end of the chapter very carefully.
As you read, you will begin to see how accurately you guessed in step one
above. Again, you are setting up anticipation and beginning to find out
whether what you thought the authors would cover is, in fact, right.
3. Now, review the activities section located just before the chapter summary. This will give you a "big picture" overview of how this chapter fits
into the larger framework of this course. It will help you recall key ideas
by anchoring them to broader concepts. Even if you choose not to do any
of the activities, review then anyway.
4. Next, move through the pages of the chapter, only reading the major
headings, bold print, and materials in the margins. This will help you
understand the layout of key ideas in the chapter and how they come
into play.
5. Go back to the start of the chapter. This time skim the chapter from start
to finish. Pay attention only to the first sentence in every paragraph. Also,
skim information in text boxes, cartoons, tables, and pictures. The key
here is to move your eyes as quickly as possible but still capture understanding.
6. Now, you are ready to actually read the chapter. As you read, think of
driving a car with two speeds: slow and fast. As you are reading, allow
yourself to be in high gear--skimming along quickly. As long as what you
are reading sounds familiar and makes sense, keep going fast. When
something seems confusing or does not make sense, downshift into slow
gear. Read carefully and think about what the authors are trying to tell
you. You may even have to read it several times to get it. That is normal.
Once you have it, shift back into fast gear and continue reading.
7. Before you leave the chapter, you should be able to better answer the
beginning questions from step 1 above. If you cannot answer any of
these questions in your own words, you need to return to that section of
the chapter and reread it.
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In sum, this approach may seem to take longer, but once you master it, you
will actually save time, retain more of what you read, and test better. Plus,
this will work for any textbook you read in college. Good luck!
ENDNOTES
1. "How Americans Communicate," Roper Starch Worldwide, May 2008, accessed April 9, 2012,
http://teachingfsem08.umwblogs.org/files/2008/05/roper-poll-on-communication.pdf.
2. R. F. Falk and N. B. Miller, “The Reflexive Self: a Sociological Perspective,” Roeper Report Vol. 20, issue 3 (1998),
accessed April 9, 2012, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02783199809553881#preview.
3. B.S. Bloom, “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives; The Classification of Educational Goals; Handbook I: Cognitive
Domain,” in Bloom's Taxonomy: A Forty-Year Retrospective, ed. L. W. Anderson and L. A. Sosniak (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1994), 64-81.
4. S.P. Morrealle, M. M. Osborn, and J. C. Pearson, “Why Communication is Important: A Rationale for the Centrality
of the Study of Communication,” Journal of the Association for Communication Administration 29 (2000), 1-25.
5. Bloom, “Taxonomy,” 65.
6. R.M. Diamond, “Designing and Assessing Courses and Curricula,” Chronicle of Higher Education (August 1, 1997),
B7.
7. Job Outlook Survey 2011, National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE), accessed March 23, 2012,
http://www.naceweb.org/Research/Job_Outlook/Job_Outlook.aspx.
8. E. Driscoll, “Um, Like, Whatever: College Grads Lack Verbal Skills,” Money 101 Fox Business (March 4, 2011),
accessed March 23, 2012, http://www.foxbusiness.com/personal-finance/2011/03/03/um-like-collegegrads-lackverbal-skills/.
9. V. Merchant, “Listen Up,” Time Magazine, June 28, 1999, 72.
10. J. L. Winsdor, D. B. Curtis, and R. D. Spephens, “National Preferences in Business and Communication Education:
A Survey Update,” Journal of the Association for Communication Administration 3 (September 1997), 170-179.
11. Spanning the Chasm: Corporate and Academic Cooperation to Improve Workforce Preparation, Business-Higher Education
Forum (Washington DC: American Council on Education, 1997), v.
12. “Job Outlook Survey.”
13. D. Goleman, The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace (San Francisco: Josey-Bass, 2011), 13.
14. Victoria Stern, “So Lonely It Hurts: Chronic Loneliness Alters Genes and Increases Risk for Life Threatening
Diseases,” Scientific American Mind (June/July Vol. 19), 3.
15. D. Erwin, “The Surprising Relationship between Work Communication and Personal Health,” Dan Erwin Blog,
September 8, 2011, accessed March 23, 2012, http://danerwin.typepad.com/my_weblog/2011/09/the-surprisingrelationshipbetween-work-communication-and-personal-health.html.
16. G. Morse, “The Science Behind the Smile: an Interview with Daniel Gilbert,” accessed March 23, 2012,
http://hbr.org/2012/01/the-science-behind-the-smile/ar/1.
17. M.E.P. Seligman, Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life (New York: Pocket Books, 1998), 207.
18. J. B. Walther and M.S. Poole, “Communication Matters: Social Science Research on Human Connections,” accessed
March 23, 2012, http://comm.tamu.edu/Research/CommMatters.pdf.
19. E. J. Lamm, “Civic Engagement Among Students In a Communication Course: A Case Study,” (PhD unpublished
diss., University of Maryland, College Park, 2009), accessed on April 20, 2012,
http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/9970/1/Lamm_umd_0117E_10939.pdf.
Chapter 1 from Mark Butland's Achieving Communication Competence: An Introduction to Human Communication
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20. C. Shannon and W. Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press,
1949), 5.
21. Shannon and Weaver, Mathematical Theory, 5.
22. D. Berlo, The Process of Communication (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1960), NEEDS PAGE.
23. D. Barnlund, “A Transactional Model of Communication,” in Foundations of Communication Theory, ed. K. Sereno
and C.D. Mortensen (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), 83-102.
24. Spitzberg, B. H. and Cupach, W. R. Interpersonal Communication Competence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984.
25. S.P. Morreale, R.B. Rubin, and E. Jones, “Speaking and Listening Competencies for College Students” (paper
published online by the National Communication Association, 1998), accessed April 10, 2012,
http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/Teaching_and_Learning/Assessment_Resources/PDFSpeaking_and_Listenin
g_Competencies_for_College_Students.pdf.
26. Morreale, Rubin, and Jones, “Speaking and Listening.”
27. S.A. Beebe, S.J. Beebe, and D.K. Ivy, Communication Principles for a Lifetime 5th ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2012),
NEEDS PAGE.
28. J.A. DeVito, Essentials of Human Communication, 7th ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2011), NEEDS PAGE.
29. R.B. Adler and M. Scott, Understanding Human Communication, 8th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press USA,
YEAR), NEEDS PAGE.
REFERENCES
Antelava, N. “Uzbekistan’s Policy of Secretly Sterilizing Women.” BBC News Magazine on BBC World Service. Accessed
April 12, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17612550.
“Graduates Are Not Prepared to Work in Business.” Association Trends (June 1997): 4.
Scott, M. and Brydon, S. Dimensions of Communication: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
Chapter 1 from Mark Butland's Achieving Communication Competence: An Introduction to Human Communication
ISBN:978-1-4652-0063 | Copyright:2012
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Chapter 1 from Mark Butland's Achieving Communication Competence: An Introduction to Human Communication
ISBN:978-1-4652-0063 | Copyright:2012
www.kendallhunt.com/butland_competence