CHAPTER 12:
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Outline
1.
Organizational development
Definition
OD specialist requirements
5.
Step 3: Solution Design
Cautions
Individual & collective approaches
2.
Theory & Application
Theoretical base
Product-oriented approach
Basic OD Model
6.
Step 4: Intervention
Bases for resistance
Overcoming resistance
7.
Step 5: Re-evaluation
3.
Step 1: Need awareness
Background information
Communication Behaviors
8.
Effective OD
Characteristics
Principles for OD decision makers
Training principles
4.
Step 2: Diagnosis
Change is a fact of life. All living organisms change. Even the most conservative
people and organizations change. The challenge for managers is to direct change such
that organizational effectiveness and quality of work life are enhanced. Consequently,
we end this book as we began – with a concern for person and work outcomes, in the
short, intermediate, and long-run. This chapter, then, reinforces the fact that
management is a continuous process that requires commitment, focus, and
appreciation for inherent difficulties in managing human behavior. These concerns will
be evident as we describe organizational development.
Organizational Development
Organizational development (OD) is a planned effort to monitor, modify, maintain
and maximize effective human behavior in organizations. This broad definition
suggests that OD is concerned with every aspect of organizational life. For example,
does the color of paint on the assembly room walls impact on the pace of production?
This is an OD question. How can the error rate in manufacturing be lowered; should the
organization be redesigned; how can professional development for managers be
strengthened? These are organizational development questions. Not all are directly
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related to communication, but, in many cases, outcomes may be heavily dependent on
communication effectiveness.
Successful OD specialists tend to possess two characteristics. First, they spend
a lot of time asking “why” a particular set of outcomes exists. Essentially, they are very
concerned about differentiating between a “problems” symptoms and causes
(consistent with concern we expressed in chapter 6, problem/solutions identification).
Second, they understand the relationship between theory and practice.
Theory & Practice
Often, tension exists between the theoretician or academic and those who
practice in non-academic settings. The practitioner often views the academic as having
little “real” world experience and regards that perspective (theoretic) as ethereal. In
contrast, many academics frequently view practitioners as shortsighted and focused on
the bottom-line. Both perspectives are extreme and contain stereotypic inaccuracies.
In reality, theory and practice go hand-in-hand. In other words, a “good” theory, by
definition, must provide guidance for good practice. And, we have yet to find a “good”
practice that is not supported by theory. Hence, theory and practice are important and
inseparable.
Theoretical base. Theoretically, many communication specialists have failed to
provide a useful conceptual scheme for explaining communication activity. As a result,
they provide vague, often inconsistent, notions of what they study and view everything
as being directly related to communication. They fall into the error described by an old
cliché: “When something is everything, then it is nothing.” Such is the case of those
who view communication as synonymous with human behavior. Others believe defining
communication is a mere classroom exercise and have never personally struggled with
its boundaries. Both perspectives produce OD specialists that meddle in every aspect
of organizational behavior, including the color of paint on the walls.
Often, employees may have a philosophical prejudice that must be dealt with.
This prejudice is that anything theoretical is not practical. Too often, one hears students
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and managers exclaim, “I don’t want theory; I want something practical!” However, both
are inseparable; they feed on each other. Theoretical knowledge guides the questions
the OD specialist asks, problems identified, solutions designed, and implementation
methods. In short, theory provides the framework for practice. At the same time,
“hands-on” experience nourishes theory. The workplace provides a field of study and
testing place for theories. Without this understanding and appreciation, OD efforts
become fragmented and aimless.
Product -oriented approach. Application provides the test for theory and is a
measure of the theory’s usefulness. Essentially, a product-oriented approach is
concerned with defining specific actions for achieving short-, intermediate, and long-run
goals – i.e., what things can I do to improve satisfaction, productivity, adapta tion,
development, and survival. Thus, there is emphasis on concrete, observable, and
tangible actions that have a measurable outcome. Yet, the range of available
alternatives and predictions of successful outcomes are most often predicated on preexisting theoretical formulations.
With the
assumption of theory and
Organizational Development Cycle of Events
practice complementing
1. Need
Awareness
one another, we now
proceed to a description
of the 5 steps of OD:
5. Reevaluate
2. Diagnosis
need awareness,
diagnosis, solution design,
intervention, and re-
4. Intervention
3. Solution
Design
evaluation.
Step 1: Need Awareness
Initially, some stimulus creates an awareness of the need to develop. This may
take the form of unacceptable productivity, a series of complaints, a desire to innovate,
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high absenteeism, or the realization that some part of the organization is outmoded.
This pressure triggers the first step in an OD sequence.
Need awareness is an orientation phase, similar to problem identification
(chapter 6). During this phase, two general actions should take place: gather
background information and systematically determine communication behaviors.
Background information. Initially, information must be gathered from those
who perceive a need for change. It is important to gather data from a variety of
perspectives, particularly in term of goals and how the need for change is related to
goals. Issues discussed in chapters 1, 2, 3, and 4 are particularly useful here.
Production, maintenance, supportive, adaptive, and managerial subsystems can be
described and evaluated in terms of how they interact with each other. The
organization can be plotted on the Communication Design Matrix and compared to the
organizational design being used, etc.
If you are an external consultant (from outside the organization; sometimes
referred to as a change agent in diffusion literature), this is the time to become familiar
with operations in all affected subsystems/departments. Examine the organization’s
history, past development efforts, reports by consultants, structure and design, etc.
When appropriate, request to be introduced at staff meetings so that all affected parties
are aware that development activity will be taking place. This helps manage negative
aspects of rumors that often accompany the presence of a consultant.
Communication behaviors. Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8 provided guidelines for
“fine tuning” organizations through the use of communication functions. These provide
the basis for examining communication behaviors and assist in moving to “diagnosis.”
It is important to emphasize, however, members of the organization often label
problems as “communication” problems. This would lead to a communication solution.
However, quite frequently, communication is “symptom” and not the cause of a problem.
Hence, be cautious about over-reliance on communication solutions.
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Examination of communication behavior should proceed from a theory base. For
example, when applying the functional theory of communication, a thorough, systematic
method for asking questions emerges:
1. What is the relationship between communication behavior and organizational
design; what is the goodness of fit between employees and their
job/communication roles? (Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4)
2. What are the ways employees and the organization manage and exchange
information; what are the strengths and weaknesses? (Chapter 5)
3. What are the ways employees and the organization identify problems and
solutions; what are the strengths and weaknesses? (Chapter 6)
4. What are the ways employees and the organization manage and regulate
behavior; what are the strengths and weaknesses? (Chapter 7)
5. What are the ways employees and the organization manage conflicts; what are
the strengths and weaknesses? (Chapter 8)
6. What are the ways employees and the organization “talk” about work; what
motivation strategies are used; what is the level of satisfaction and quality of
work life; what is the level of productivity; what are the strengths and weaknesses
in these areas? (Chapters 9, 10, 11)
These questions have been written in very general terms. Their primary purpose is
to isolate a general dimension of communication and organizational activity. Each
general area provides boundaries and directions for more extensive investigation.
Furthermore, the questions are based upon key issues discussed in previous chapters.
Once you have isolated a general area, you can refer the associated book chapter for
guidelines to conduct a more in-depth analysis.
In summary, need awareness occurs because someone has recognized change
is desirable. This might happen because problems are perceived or simply because
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improvement is sought. This leads to actions that include gathering background
information, defining communication behavior, and separating causes and symptoms.
Step 2: Diagnosis
Diagnosis must begin with a theory base that contains concepts and variables
useful for applying to the organization. For example, the first 4 chapters emphasized
the usefulness of Katz and Kahn’s organizational subsystems (production,
maintenance, supportive, adaptive, managerial) in diagnosing operations, comparing
organizations, and discovering potential areas for improvement. There are several
other theoretical models you may wish to use, contingent on your unit of analysis.
Some theories are suitable for individuals, some for groups, and some for entire
organizations. The critical decision, however, is defining the unit of analysis. If you
were thorough in Step 1, this shouldn’t be problematic.
There is no such thing as “the correct perspective.” All tested theories have their
place. You may use a combination of them in your diagnosis. Remember, there is no
single “catholic” and universal theory of human and organizational behavior. In other
words, you may need more than one theory base. Beware of the “law of the hammer” –
or, pounding every issue into the same shape and looking at it from only one
perspective! This is very limiting. Unfortunately, many contemporary theories become
“popularized” and come into vogue. Then, they are immediately seized and applied by
zealots of the approach, even when they are not needed or inappropriate.
During the diagnostic step, the aim is to identify specific needs and articulate
them as concretely as possible. For example, problems with information management
may be the general area isolated in Step 1. But, this is too general to take action on.
The statement should be very specific, like: “information is being distorted by
production line A because they are in intense competition with production line B; the
organization relies solely on e-mail to exchange information and provides little
opportunity for face-to-face interaction.” After developing a specific list of needs, you
are ready to move to Step 3.
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Step 3: Solution Design
Cautions. As you move to Step 3, it is important to pay heed to several
cautions. First, the existence of a problem does not imply the existence of a “ready
made” solution. If problems were easy to fix, there would be no need for an OD
specialist. Second, avoid developing or having a favorite solution that yo u constantly
seek a problem for. During the 1980’s and 1990’s, consultants became enamored with
“Total Quality Management” and “Continuous Quality Improvement” approaches. And,
across the United States, organizations were jumping on the TQM/CQI bandwagon.
Today, you hear those terms infrequently. Why? In most cases their application was
not the consequence of thorough need awareness and diagnosis steps. Here, the “law
of the hammer” was used. And, in most cases the programs failed. The approach,
however, is sound – but it is only appropriate for certain conditions. Third, avoid
innovation bias. There is a network of OD specialists who share information about new
approaches and trends in development. There is often “pressure” to adopt the latest
approaches, even though they may not be needs. Such was the case for TQM. Fourth,
few quick fixes work. The true test is for specialists to learn how to apply knowledge in
creative ways as new situations arise.
Individual & collective approaches. We began this book by contrasting
psychological and sociological approaches for explaining human behavior. Here, we
conclude the book by revisiting this comparison. Ultimately, some solutions are better
for individuals (psychological) and some work best with groups (sociological). The table
below provides a description of some individual and collective (group) solution designs:
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Individual Level
Collective Level
Training programs. Carefully planned instructional
sessions designed to highlight one or two critical
activities. They often use lecture, discussion, role
playing, experiential &/or simulation exercises, and
case studies
Counseling. 1 on 1 interview sessions where the
specialist dissects a particular activity of the
interviewee. Problems and solutions are identified
and a plan for implementation is developed
Team building. This is a popular approach that
brings a work group or team together in a
special setting to define a process, identify
weaknesses or areas to improve, and develop a
plan or method to improve the process.
Observer intervention. The specialist observes
a group in their normal work setting and makes
on the spot suggestions for improvement (a
significant amount of observation happens
first).
Group analysis survey. A survey is developed
to investigate and measure strengths and
weaknesses. All members participate in the
survey. Groups use survey data to define
problems and solutions that will be
implemented.
Confrontational meeting. (Developed by
Beckhard, 1967) The procedure brings groups
of peers together to discuss issues. After
problems are identified, supervisors are
included. Then, solutions are created.
Organizational design. This requires an actual
change in organizational structure. Often, this
is done to improve the adaptive subsystem
processes by enhancing information exchange
among those who need the other’s information.
T-groups/sensitivity training. While this process
involves a group, the emphasis is on helping the
individual become more sensitive to others’ needs.
Effectiveness depends on willingness to participate
over an extended period of time.
Performance appraisal. Evaluation of an
individual’s performance, strengths, and
weaknesses, based upon a’ priori developed set of
criteria. The appraisal provides the basis for goal
setting.
On the job training/OJT. This specific training is
directly related to an individual’s job role and takes
place at the work location. Typically, the
supervisor performs the role of “trainer.” This is
basically “learning by doing.”
The list of individual and collective techniques is much longer than we provide
here. As an OD specialist, you will refer to many other publications and discussions of
change solutions. What is important is that you select solutions that are appropriate,
particularly in terms of a thorough diagnosis, constraints on organizational resources,
and constraints on you, the OD specialist. After these considerations are made, it is
time to consider intervention.
Step 4: Intervention
Some suggest that intervention begins the moment an OD specialist is called
onto the scene (Step 1). Although there is some truth to this assertion, intervention
actually begins when the specialist initiates a solution designed to meet a particular
need. During the first 3 steps, the specialist listened, asked questions, collected
information, and designed solutions. The specialist’s presence probably had some
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ancillary impact on the organization, but a skilled specialist can minimize the potential
for negative consequences.
Employees develop a level of comfort in their roles. As a result intervention, i.e.,
change, is often resisted. Being aware of the following causes of resistance to change
permits development of strategy to reduce resistance:
Potential Causes for Resistance to intervention
Perceived threat. The most common source of resistance results from the human tendency to
feel nervous about the unknown. Most persons are uncomfortable in new situations; they
tend to wonder if changes will have a negative impact on them personally. As a result, they
react defensively to solutions that impact on their “territory.”
Suspicion. There is often a strong suspicion among employees that the OD specialist usually
has little impact. Others may suspect the specialist’s intentions are not in their interest. The
unfortunate part of suspicion is that some specialists do poor work and reinforce the
suspicions. This form of resistance affects the credibility of all specialists and creates
resistance toward skilled specialists.
Intervention at the wrong level. Resistance and frustration often result from attempts to
implement solutions at the wrong level or within the incorrect system. In addition, it is
difficult to be successful if top management has not publicly supported development activity.
Without publicly stated support and necessary resources, the intervention will eventually fail.
Too much change. A common principle in research literature about persuasion is that people
cannot make many large, sustained changes in a short period of time. Plus, when individuals
perceive a solution as “radical” and having a short time for implementation, resistance will
escalate even further.
Change is poorly explained. Learning theorists know that learning something new is a
complicated process. Solutions that may seem very simple to the specialist may be perceived
as complicated by the target of change. A common complaint is that solutions are too
“theoretical.” This charge often means that employees simply don’t understand the logic of a
solution. Sometimes, however, specialists find it difficult to explain the logic of change in a
way that the employee will understand.
Once the specialist is aware of the causes of resistance, then it becomes easier
to develop techniques that will reduce resistance. Specific techniques include: don’t be
self-centered, intervene at the proper level, allow employees to participate in the
development process, design changes in small increments, and continually monitor and
adapt:
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Some Techniques for Reducing Resistance to Change
Avoid self-centeredness --Sometimes, specialists become so convinced that they have the
right solution that they tend to ignore others’ points of view. This self-centeredness is a
barrier to effective change.
Intervene at proper level -- It is also critical that the primary unit of analysis be defined. Once
this is done, it is much easier to identify the subsystem targets of change.
Allow employee participation -- Employee participation in change enables a feeling of
“ownership” and stimulates desire to change. Furthermore, as employees are involved the
likelihood for specialist self-centeredness is reduced.
Design change in small increments -- Individuals and groups are more will to make large
changes in small steps than to make large changes in 1 or 2 big steps.
Monitor & adapt -- It is important to monitor the consequences of change at each step. This
enhances flexibility and allows modification when needed.
If solutions are not producing expected results, the specialist must make
adjustments. Diagnosis of problems and prescription of effective solutions are not exact
sciences, so the specialist must monitor, adapt, and re-evaluate as necessary.
Step 5: Re-evaluation
The OD specialists work isn’t over when change is introduced. The process we
have described here ends with evaluation, which causes a movement back to Step 1
(i.e., to see if a need exists to change or maintain).
Effective Organizational Development
Characteristics. The five-step cycle of events outline the process of
organizational development. In order for an organization to exhibit dynamic
homeostasis and acquire negentropy, OD must be a never ending, continuous activity.
In addition, effective OD is characterized by these characteristics: it is supportive of
people with different points of view; (2) it functions as a training model for employees;
(3) it is simple enough to be used by managers who continually monitor the work area
(Levinson, 1972). In addition, effective programs have an inherent feedback
mechanism for the change target, i.e., provides the individual with information about
how they are doing and the effects of change. Underlying these characteristics of
effective change is the assumption of flexibility and adaptability. A successful change in
one system may not work in another without modification.
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Principles for OD decision makers & Training. Throughout this book, we
have made it a point to provide practical application statements in the form of principles.
We end the book with the same approach. Based on research and experience, we
have identified 5 important, general principles that OD specialist should follow (these
are derived from the topics we have covered throughout the book:
Principles for OD Decision Makers
1. Avoid the assumption that all problems stem from a previously discovered
cause. Refer to problem/solution identification techniques in chapter 6.
2. Ensure adequate information is gathered. Combine & implement principles from
information exchange (chapter 5) and problem identification (chapter 6).
3. Determine outcome goals before selecting development strategy. This requires
precise definition of the “target of change.” The method for defining the target of
change is in chapter 7, behavior regulation
4. Maximize involvement and participation of targeted employees during program
development. A theme throughout this book is that participation enhances the
likelihood of successfully achieving goals. Here, you are making “ownership”
possible.
5. Communicate! Effective change requires continual interaction. Katz & Kahn
were very clear when the y emphasized the importance of the adaptive subsystem.
This subsystem’s greatest value is the acquisition of intelligence, which facilitates
organizational adaptation and change. This subsystem’s primary tool is information
exchange (see chapter 5 for effectiveness principles).
Principles for effective training. At some point, OD specialists will also be
trainers. To assist you in that process, we have provided four effectiveness principles
for you to use:
•
Principle 1: Training should be skill-oriented and actively involve participants.
Employees go to training because they are told to – given an option, they
would probably go to work instead of training. Therefore, training sessions
should have a limited number of learning objectives, include heaving doses of
student participation, and be fast paced. There should be a heavy emphasis
on application.
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•
Principle 2: Training sessions should be multi-media presentations involving
as many of the participants’ senses as possible. With today’s media
technologies, there is simply no excuse for not having a sophisticate,
professional presentation of information. Employees have come to expect
message delivery in a “high tech, action-packed” manner. Furthermore, the
greater the number of senses stimulated, the greater the likelihood of
successfully transmitting your message to the audience.
•
Principle 3: Do all that is possible to prepare participants before training
begins. “Time is money” is an old slogan you have heard before. A two-hour
meeting with 15 employees can get very expensive when you consider ho w
much they make an hour. So, if time is to be efficiently used, participants
should come to the session prepared. It is common for the OD specialist to
provide reading and audio-visual materials, along with preparation
assignments, to participants prior to the actual session. Plus, it’s a good idea
to brief the participants’ supervisors before hand and ask that they insure a
supportive environment exists for implementing change and request they
communicate this sentiment to the participant.
•
Principle 4: Short-, intermediate, and long-run objectives of training must be
tied directly to long-run organizational planning and worker needs. There are
many meritorious change programs. But, their value to an organization is a
function of the extent to which they contribute to organizational goal
attainment. The tie-in must be real and specifically stated. If not, the
development effort isn’t worth doing. In addition, development programs
should be scrutinized in terms of worker needs. Recall Trist and Bamforth’s
study of coal mining and the introduction of new technology (Chapter 4).
There new technology was inherently superior to what was being used, but it
had such an adverse impact of the workers’ social system that productivity
actually decreased. Failure to remember this lesson could doom change
efforts.
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