UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING
EDUCATION
EDU 203: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Published
UNIT: 2
2007 ©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by
mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in writing from the
University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic programme of the
Centre for Distance Learning, University of Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of
Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-75-4
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
PREFACE
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do most of the
study on their own. The structure of the study unit is different from that of
conventional textbook. The course writers have made efforts to make the study
material rich enough but learners need to do some extra reading for further
enrichment of the knowledge required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and where feasible,
use the Internet. References are provided to guide the selection of reading
materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers and editors
for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help in improving access to
University education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
iii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to simplify your
study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction, objectives, in-text,
summary and self-assessment exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be available at
designated contact centers for tutorial. The center expects you to plan your work
well. Should you wish to read further you could supplement the study with more
information from the list of references and suggested readings available in the
study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help you to
assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood the topic.
Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the study unit for you to
assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of examination
type questions for you to answer and send to the center. You are expected to work
on your own in responding to the assignments. The TMA forms part of your
continuous assessment (C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you.
In addition, you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be
added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the different units
of your study.
iv
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
This course introduces the student, in 5 topic, into the study of the
meaning of sociology; the functions of a sociologist and his
relationship to educational practice. Similarly the historical
development of sociology of education is also presented.
1
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
EDU 203:
UNIT: 2
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNITS: 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
PREFACE
-
-
-
-
-
-
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT -
-
-
-
-
iv
-
-
1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY
AND EDUCATION
-
-
EARLY SCHOLARS IN THE FIELD OF
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION -
- 10
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
TOPIC:
1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
-
EDUCATION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA
SOCIAL STRUCTURE -
-
FACTORS THAT ACCOUNT TO YOUTH
MOVEMENT/ CULTURE -
- 26
-
-
-
iii
3
- 16
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOCIALIZATION - 31
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
2
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
1.0
TOPIC:
GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY
AND EDUCATION
-
-
3
1.1
INTRODUCTION -
-
-
-
-
-
4
1.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
1.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
1.3.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION -
-
-
4
-
1.3.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
OF EDUCATION -
-
-
-
-
6
1.4
SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
8
1.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
8
1.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
9
1.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
9
-
-
-
3
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
1.0
TOPIC: GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY AND EDUCATION
1.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
This topic introduces the student into the study of the meaning of
sociology, the functions of a sociologist and his relationship to educational
practice. Similarly the historical development of sociology of education is
also presented. Here, sociology is considered as the study of man’s
behaviour in a social group. Hence, sociologist of education is concerned
with social institutions in our society. Thus, the sociologist serve the society
in various capacities. In another dimension, the perspective of the
historical development was assessed through the works of Emile Durkehim
and John Dewey.
1.2
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:i.
Identify the various meanings of sociology and sociology
of education.
ii.
Identify the various roles and functions of sociologist
and sociologist of educations.
iii.
Trace out the historical development of sociology of
education.
1.3
IN-TEXT:
1.3.1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY AND
EDUCATION
Sociology is the scientific study of man's behavior in his social group
relationship. Just like in other branches of sciences sociologists of
Education employ scientific method and studies in group behavior.
Education on the other hand can be as all that goes on in the society which
involves teaching and training.
The relationship between education and sociology is quite similar to
that between engineering and physics. Practitioners take the knowledge
and theories evolved by pure scientists apply them to the solutions of
practical problems. For example in medical field, one reads the theory in
books and practices it on human beings. On the other hand practical
problems contribute to knowledge. In the same way, predictions and
control are aims of social science and application of social or behavioral
science is a necessary aspect of education.
Sociologists of education are mainly concerned with social
institutions such as class structure, social mobility, the family, educational
institutions, law, religion, economic and political institutions etc. More
4
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
often than not, they view education as a 'social process whereby the
individual is prepared for successful participation in social relationship.
The sociology of Education can therefore be termed as sociological process
taking place within our educational system and social environment.
Research findings have indicated that for sociology to progress. As a
genuine science it must become more experiment, and the system
education offers situations in which experiments are possible without
offending our values as human beings because it provides sociology with an
opportunity to meet the challenge of what many people consider to be vital
requirements of science, at is the ability to predict and organizes social
change.
Sociological research in education therefore is simply experimental
or observatory sociology consequently, sociology and education have a
great deal to offer each other.
Sociologists serve society in a variety of capacities as teachers,
lecturers, researchers, journalists, workers in industries, personal officers,
social workers or administrators, criminologists, probation officers etc. As
sociologists, they are interested in establishing the fact of society and of
social relationship in as objective and scientific manner as possible, as
people living and working in society with its multifarious problems; social
facts, whatever their nature are the raw material of the sociologist.
To the sociologist, education is something which takes place society
because of three (3) basic facts. First everything about the way of life of a
society is learnt.
Second, the in fact in very receptive to experience, i.e he or she is
capable of developing a wide range of beliefs about the world around him,
he is very efficient in manipulating it and value it as to how he should go
about it.
Third, this in fact is also totally dependent from birth and for a very
long tine upon other people. Let us look for instance at infant in the family
- when a child is born, the socialization process begins that very day and it
is carried on and refined within the same boundaries of family structure.
Thus all the information the child needs about the society into which
he/she is born is provided during his experiences in the family.
The three parts discussed above are linked together by education. It
is the very way the individual acquires the many physical moral and social
capacities demanded of his by the group into which he is born and within
which he must function. It can also be viewed as introducing new comers
into the society.
There is no doubt that today as Nigeria has became more advanced
and technologically more complex, the division of labour results in an ever
increasing specialization of the labour force, the physic al and social
mobility of individual and family increase, it would became less possible
for our families to provide the kind of information the individual needs to
5
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
become a fully functioning member of the society. Thus, there is need for
secondary socialization. As such, educational institution readily forms
secondary socialization. In other words, it prepares the individual to fill the
appropriate adult social role in the society. Consequently, sociology and
Education have a lot to offer each other. For example sociological concepts
help education to answer or find solutions to the questions of how the
functioning of the school influences such institutions as the family, political
economic institutions and vice versa. In short, the sociology of education is
the study of the link between education and society. For example there is
the-influence of the economy, family church and politics upon the
institutions of education etc.
1.3.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Emile Durkheim was the first sociologist to come up with the idea of
sociology of Education as a subject matter. Due to the deteriorating trends
in modern industrial society which witnessed series of wars and industrial
revolution Durkheim was prompted to develop the idea of the subject.
He recommended in particular that education should be reorganized to provide for the improvement of social life and deteriorating
moral life of the French Society through such activities as the development
of community and other projects similar to most communities today.
Examples of such projects are Adult Education, Community Health Centre,
Education for the citizens, Farm Settlement Co-operative Farms etc.
Another key figure who contributed immensely to the development
of the subject was John Dewey - an American Educational thinker. At the
beginning of the 20th century John Dewey observed that village life was
breaking down, people were moving to the cities, social structure changing
and both the school and the religious institutions had done a little or
nothing to make the child aware of the new society growing up around him
forgetting that the child was an essential part of society. With this in mind,
Dewey aimed to help promote a social spirit of co-operation and mutual aid
between school an d home and provide Within the school itself, the
situations in which such co-operation might be elicited. As a result, he felt
the school must be in closer relationship with the home and general life of
its neighborhood. He saw the school as a place which reflects the larger
society and sought to improve it.
According to Dewey, the ideal school is expected to perform the
following functions:i.
Reflecting and typifying 'the larger society outside its walls
ii.
Purifying the activities of the society and its environment;
iii.
Simplifying the activities of the society in its environment;
iv.
Balancing the activities of the society in its environment.
In other words, sociology sharpens education and forms a vital force
in the entire framework of education. This is because the whole
6
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
superstructure of education has depended upon social forces, needs and
demands. This includes the expectations and aspirations of a changing
society which are reflected through the educational system of a nation.
Society is dynamic, it grows and changes and as such these social changes
must not only be reflected in education but also must affect it. The
sociology of education is therefore the consciously controlled process
whereby changes in behavior are produced in the persons and through the
person within the group. It focuses upon the social force through which the
individual is developed and the social relation by which the individual
gains experience. The sociology of education is therefore both the influence
and relationship between the education system and other social and
cultural, systems of the nation - social cultural, political and economic.
Dewey was also of the opinion that education should bring a change
not only in the amount of knowledge gained but in abilities to think and to
acquire habits, skills, interests and attitudes which characterize a person
who is socially accepted, personally adjusted and responsible. The
sociologists of Education mast of the time lay greater emphasis on social
aim in Education.
George Payne in his own contribution to the development of
sociology of Education noted that a, consideration of the relationship
between Sociology and Education and their place in the evolution of
educational system would facilitate the understanding of education as a
means of social control. According Payne, from the point of view of the
sociology of education, the functions of education are:i.
Assimilation of tradition
ii.
Development of new social pattern, and
iii.
Creative and constructive role
1.4
SUMMARY
This topic analyzed the meaning of sociology as the scientific study
of human behaviours in social group. Hence, sociology of education
applied this scientific method in the study of group behaviours.
Therefore, the sociologist of education concerned themselves with
social institutions (i.e) structure, social mobility, the family
educational institution, law, religion etc.
Generally, the sociologist serve society in a variety of
capacities (i.e) as teachers lectures, social workers, administrators
etc. further more, sociologist assessed education on the following
facts
a.
Everything about the way of life of a society is
learnt.
b.
The infant is very receptive to experience
c.
The infant depended on people right from birth
through various stages of growth.
7
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Finally, the topic assessed the historical development of
sociology of education through the works of Emile Durkheim and
john Dewey.
1.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
1.6
Discuss three basic facts that enables education take place in
the society.
REFERENCES
Cicourel A. V. (1998). “The Acquisition of Social Structure” In J. D.
Douglas (ed), Understanding Everyday Life Rutledge
and Kogan Paul, London.
Durkheim E. (1956), Education and Society Free Press Chicago.
1.7
SUGGESTED READING
Banks O. (1974), “The New Sociology of Education Forum for the
Discussion of New Trends in Education, Vol. 17, No. 1,
pp. 4-7.
8
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
EARLY SCHOLARS IN THE FIELD OF
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION -
2.1
INTRODUCTION -
-
-
-
-
2.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
11
2.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
11
-
-
11
-
10
-
11
2.3.1 EARLY SCHOLARS IN THE FIELD OF
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION 2.4
SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
-
15
2.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
15
2.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
15
2.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
15
-
-
9
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
2.0
TOPIC: EARLY SCHOLARS IN THE FIELD OF SOCIOLOGY
OF EDUCATION
2.0
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
This aspect examined the works of four prominent scholars in
the field of sociology of education. These scholars include Emile
Durkheim, Augustine Comte, Max Webber and George Simmel.
Durkheim argued that sociology mainly deals with social facts.
He further believed that what holds society together as a building
block are societal laws, customs, institutions and organizations. In
this respect, Durkhiem assert that the society as a whole and each
particular milieu determines the ideals that education should realize.
Comte’s ending contribution was that sociology should rely on
observation and experimentation method of the physical sciences.
His major emphasizes was that sociology promote social progress
and change. Further more Webber was particularly interested in the
larger dimension of society, its organization and institutions. Finally,
Simmel concentrated on the larger structure of the society, hence, he
focused on the smaller units to be / able to make generalization.
2.1
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Discuss on the contribution of Emile Durkheim
ii.
Analyses the work of Augustine Comte in sociology.
iii.
Analyze the contribution of Max Webber.
iv.
Discuss the contribution of George Simmel.
2.3
IN-TEXT:
2.3.1
EARLY SCHOLARS IN THE FIELD OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
2.3.1.1 EMILE DURKHEIM (1958-1917)
More than anyone else in the field of social sciences, Durkheim
defined the subject matter of sociology and pointed out hew it differed
from philosophy, economics, psychology and social reform. To him,
sociology is mainly concerned with social facts. In contrast to those who
reduce most social occurrences to individual psychological and biological
traits, Durkheim felt that what really holds the society together as a
building block are societal laws, customs, institutions and organization.
These social facts are external to people yet they exert control over them.
For example, if we look at laws in this Nigerian societies, we might say they
are just words but when we observe how people adhere to these laws, we
10
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
see that people actually act as if the laws are real and that they are tangible
things.
Durkheim believed that social facts should be studied in their own
right. He is also 6f the opinion that social facts are to be explained in terms
of other social facts and not in terms of biological or psychological traits.
Thus, in his view, to understand the meaning and development of a
society’s laws, religion. To understand a society’s organizations on one
must look at the institutions like government and economies of which they
are a part of.
Like Comte, Durkheim though of society as a whole unto itself,
greater than sum of its parts.
One of Emile Durkheim's major concerns was social and moral
order. According to Durkheim, social order works because of a broad
consensus on values and institutions (government, family, religion) among
members of a society.
This consensus is especially characteristic of non literate societies
based on mechanical solidarity that is social unity that comes from a
consensus of values and norms, strong social pressures for conformity and
dependence on tradition and family. Durkheim witnessing the social upheaval brought on by the industrial and democratic revolutions, attempted
to describe how social order was achieved in complex industrial and
democratic society. In modern society, he coo-tended, social order is based
on organic modern society, he contended, social order is based on organic
solidarity – social unity based on a complex of highly specialized roles that
makes members of society dependent on one another. Durkheims
emphasis on social solidarity is often criticized by Marxists and other
radical sociologists who are more interested in the sources of social
conduct in societies. But the idea shared beliefs and values hold societies
together is still a basic tenet of the functionalist school of thought.
Durkheim's major contribution probably came in the area of
research methods the first to introduce the use of statistical techniques in
the study of human groups in his research on suicide.
Emile Durkheim saw education as a social thing and argued “It is the
society as a whole and each particular social milieu that determines the
idea that education realizes. Society can survive only if there exists among
its members a sufficient decree of homogeneity; education perpetuates and
reinforces this homogeneity by fixing the child from the beginning, the
essential similarities that collective life demands. But on the other hand,
without certain diversity all co-operation would be impossible, education
assures the persistence of this necessary diversity by being itself diversified
and specialized”. He went further to argue that there was not just one form
of education ideal or actual but many forms, and it is the society that would
determine the type of "Education can only be understood when we know
for what society and for what social positions the pupils are being
11
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
educated. By being able to categorize societal ills, we might be able to plan
educational programme for a new and better society. The is more or less a
sociological approach to educational problems and it could provide
positives value which realize that neither educational techniques nor
educational aims can be conceived without a context, to a very large extent
they are socially directed.
2.3.1.2 AUGUSTINE COMTE (1798-1857)
Auguste Comte, was generally recognized as the father of sociology.
He took the betterment of society as his main concern. Like many
philosophers of his day, Comte was both disturbed and fascinated by the
social disorder created by the French revolution. He believed that if
societies are to advance, social life must be studied scientifically. His
interest ranged beyond mathematics and physic attempted to create
science of society himself since non-existed at that time. One of his
enduring contributions is the idea that sociology would rely on observation
and experimentation methods of the physical sciences in the study of social
life. He also distinguished between social statistics the study of stability
and order and social dynamics - the study of change. His emphasized in his
writings that sociology could promote social progress. This idea in
particular was widely adopted by other European scholars whose own
societies were feeling the impact of the forces of change unleashed by
industrialism and the democratic revolution.
According to Comte, the aim of sociology was to find the invariable
natural laws of society upon which a new order could be based. Ironically,
in analyzing society, Comte never had a purely scientific interest, he
wanted to establish a 'spiritual elite led by himself to run the new social
order.
2.3.1.3 MAX WEBER (1864-1920)
Max Weber was regarded as the greatest single influence on modern
sociology. He was particularly interested in larger dimensions of society, its
organizations and institutions, which he studied on a vast historical and
world-wide. He wrote on a wide variety of topics including the relationship
between Capitalism and protastantism, power, the development of
bureaucracy, religions of the world and the nature of social classes. Unlike
Durkheim, he did not favour the study of human beings as if they were
physical things.
His approach was a subjective one humans act on the basis of their
own understanding of a situation. Thus sociologists of Education according
to, him must discover personal meanings values, beliefs and attitudes
underlying behaviour. He believed that sociology must included the study
of social action, the way people orient their behaviour to one another.
Understanding the subjective intentions of people could be accomplished
12
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
through what Weber called the method of Verstches that is understanding
the behaviour of other's by putting oneself mentally in their place.
Throughout his life he showed an extraordinary appreciation for the
problems other people faced and for the shades of mood and meaning that
characterized their outlook on life. Like Durkheim, Weber shaped the
development of sociological research as well as theory.
Whilst Durkheim argued for an emphasis on social factors beyond
the individual, Weber on the other hand argued for an approach combining
sociology and psychology. He finally advised sociologists to be value free in
their research and not let person biases affect the conduct and outcome of
their research.
2.3.1.4 GEORGE SIMMEL (1858-1918)
Unlike others who were interested in studying larger structures of
society, George Simmel focused on smaller focused on smaller unites. He
advanced the idea that society is best seen as a web of patterned interact
ions among people. He also believed that the main purpose of sociology
should be to examine the basic forms that these interactions take. Simmel
felt that such forms are few in number and that they are universal that is,
that they exist in all societies and apply to all spheres of life. Some
examples of the basic forms of interaction that Simmel analysed are cooperation and conflict leaders and followers, and the process of
communication. He was an inspired teacher and a prolific writer.
2.4
SUMMARY
In this topic we examined the works of four prominent
scholars in the field of sociology of education. These scholars include
Emile Durkheim, Augustine Comte, Max Webber and George
Simmel.
2.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
2.6
Explain the four function of an ideal school as spelt out by
John Dewey.
REFERENCES
Durkheim E. (1964), Essays on Sociology and Philosophy (ed K. H.
Wolff) Harper, New York.
Musgrave, P. W. (1985) P. W. (1985), The Sociology of Education,
Methuen, London.
2.7
SUGGESTED READING
13
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Young, M. F. D. and Whitty, G. (1997), Society, State and Schooling.
The ‘Falmer’ Press Brighton.
14
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 3:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0
TOPIC:
EDUCATION IN PRE-COLONIAL
AFRICA SOCIAL STRUCTURE -
16
3.1
INTRODUCTION -
-
-
-
-
-
17
3.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
17
3.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
17
3.3.1
EDUCATION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA
-
17
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
3.3.2
-
-
INFORMAL TRADITIONAL EDUCATION IN
PRE-COLONIAL ERA
3.3.3
-
-
-
-
19
-
20
SOURCE ANDERSON, C.G. TOWARD
A NEW SOCIOLOGY
-
-
-
3.3.4
MUSLIM EDUCATION (FORMAL) -
21
3.3.5
EDUCATION IN COLONIAL AFRICA
-
21
3.3.6
CULTURE -
23
-
-
-
-
-
3.4
SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
24
3.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
25
3.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
25
3.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
25
-
-
-
15
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
3.0
3.0
UNIT: 2
TOPIC: EDUCATION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
The societal set up in pre-colonial Africa varied from society to
society and community to community. The National are in
complexity, size and degree of stratification. Inspite of these
differences, the pre-colonial education seem to have the same
patterns. In any case, the pre-colonial education are described as
traditional education, informal education and indigenous educating.
Later there was colonial education and Muslim education with
remarkable differences in comparison with the pre-colonial system.
This was when the ester and Arabian civilization and culture began
to submerge into African society.
3.1
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you student be able to:
i.
Differentiate among difference types of educational
practices in pre-colonial and colonial periods in Africa.
ii.
Effectively discuss each aspects of educational practices.
iii.
Compare and contrast the educational practices in
Africa.
3.3
IN-TEXT:
3.3.1
EDUCATION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA SOCIAL STRUCTURE
The societal set up in pre-colonial Africa varied in complexity, size
and decree of stratification: While same had no leaders, others were great
states, well organized too e.g. Borno, Songhai, Ghana, Mali.
In leaderless societies, social and political life and descent, roles
were distributed on the basis bf age, sex, personal characteristics and
achievements. The young were subordinate to the old, a relationship which
was of ten formalized through the system of age grades. Women were
usually subordinate to men both in social status and decision making.
Child rearing, house work and farming activities fell in the lot of women
while the men hunted and performed more ardous tasks. Leadership
positions in the community were open to competition, they were achieved
rather than ascribed i.e given to individuals who excelled in physical
strength, agricultural production, welfare and public speaking. Cultural
differentiations were infinite, language, life styles and x values were more
or less identical for all.
Due to the wars, of conquest associated to the spread of Islam and
control of trade routes there were large empires that rose and fell. These
16
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
empires were highly organized, stratified with classes of slaves, farmers,
warriors, pastoralists, teachers, religious leaders, bureaucrats, craftsmen,
traders and nobles. As a result of this, stratification, inequalities of class,
status and power could be passed from one generation to the other.
It was very difficult to move out of the class and status to which one
was born. In other words the caste system was being practiced (this is a
system whereby your birth determines your social position and rigidly this
is accompanied by endogamy – marrying within one’s caste). -Best known
examples of caste in Africa is the Hutu-Tutsi of Rwanda. The Tutsi
pastoralists have long been ruling over Hutu farmers and they never
intermarry, or even socialize together.
In the Western Sudan as well, the blacksmiths are some what
discriminated against because the people believe the iron with which they
work is dangerous and capable of polluting people. Apart from this they
believe blacksmith are being supervised by special gods who provide them
with special powers, so blacksmith families are kept separate from the rest
of the society.
There is to a limited extent a certain amount of achieved status in the
more stratified pre-colonial societies. Slaves could for instance reach high
position in courts of kings especially when there was rivalry amount
members of the royal family.
For example there was a: Case of Mansa Musa who rose to power in
Mali by his achievements.
In Nigeria, some societies had open stratification systems. In Igbo
land for example hierarchy or and equality were emphasized. Political and
traditional leadership were very important. This was obtained through
heredity, achievement, and skills in highly rated activities. Then society
was purely a cephalous society, mainly because they lacked
institutionalized political o' traditional leaders. To increase ones status
success as a farmer and marital patterns (i.e number of wives) were very
important. In the Northern part of Nigeria particularly in Hausa land faith
was very crucial, infact it was more important than economic position.
Marriage amongst the Hausas was a matter of kinship groups and people of
different economic and prestige level did (and still do) intermarry.
Amongst the 3 major groups found in Nigeria, the Igbo were very much
equalitarian than either the Yoruba or the Hausa. For example the Igbos
provided more opportunities for achieved mobility than the Yoruba with
their mixture of closed and open systems. Among the Hausa. Fulani status
were achieved through ethnicity descent, age, occupation and friendship
(Hill, 1972). This is because when the Fulani conquered the Hausa
kingdoms in the early 19th century; they were accorded more prestige than
the Hausas.
From the above discussion, one realize that in pre-colonial Africa
particularly in Borno, Mali, Songhai, Ghana, Rwanda, Nigeria etc. high
17
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
status went to those holding authority roles. Indeed social differentiations
based on economic power was more limited then than it is today.
3.3.2
INFORMAL TRADITIONAL EDUCATION IN PRE-COLONIAL ERA
Going by the definition of Education as given by mile Durkheim in
1947 with its emphasis on socialization of the younger generation, one
would realize that education helps to integrate the individual into the
under society in which he is born. If this is the case then, it means Nigeria
and Africa as a whole had their own form of education, before the arrival of
the Europeans.
Both the Nuclear and the extended family including the community
as a whole were responsible for the education of the young. The first person
the child tries to imitate is the mother, then close members of the family.
In sociological terms, this is referred to as the significant others.
Significant other defined the world for the child and serve as models for
this attitude and behaviour. Thus right from childhood and child learns the
importance of following the footsteps of adults around him.
During the pre-colonial era the older members of the family (mostly
elders) made sure that children followed the moral code of the society. This
was done by their setting good examples before the younger ones. They
always made, sure that the children did nothing to tarnish the family's
name. To achieve this, the elderly members of the family would narrate
stories of great men who always stood for higher ideals in life and thereby
exhorted the youngsters to follow their examples.
The elders in the family always made sure the children participated
in the religious activities of the family through which they got
opportunities for their spiritual development. By doing this, the elders
were able to impart religious education to a considerable extent.
3.3.3
SOURCE ANDERSON, C.G. TOWARD A NEW SOCIOLOGY
The low status of women was reflected in their low participation in
public affairs and in the exploitation of their labour power. Inequalities
between boys and girls were taught to growing children. The particular
skills girls reflect sexual division of labour and stratification of adult
community.
During the pre-colonial era, there was no formal school among all
the ethnic groups of Nigeria. But whenever necessary, instructions and
guidance were given to all members of the society through established
method particularly among the Yorubas. Everyone ensured that children
followed the norms of the society. Innovations were welcomed but only
through the proper channels. Children grew up in the extended family
system where every member had the opportunity and the right to
contribute to their training through direct or indirect instructions.
18
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
According to Uche (1980) men make good use of boys and women
also make use of girls in running errands and doing odd jobs on which they
learn very well. Boys with their age groups were encourage to organize
adventures where they learn about leaves, roots, birds, footprints of
animals etc.
Young men benefit a lot from age grade system because it is a useful
instrument of passing culture from one generation to another and is quite
suited to the life of most people. For many generations in Guinea Sierra
Leone, and Liberia, the Poro society existed and has always been a
remarkable example of formal traditional educational practices. Initiation
into the society involved an extended period of training for adolescent
boys. They were initiated into secret societies, learn rites and rituals,
receive various forms of physical moral and cultural training. In fact all
over the world, age group system form important agencies of education.
The Yoruba youth is subjected to rigorous discipline and d very demanding
mental exercise to acquire all that is' required of him in religion, art,
communalism, morality, diligence cultivation of intelligence, diplomacy
and factual knowledge before he can be ready for adulthood.
3.3.4
MUSLIM EDUCATION (FORMAL)
Through trade and Islamic conquest of states, Islam spread slowly
across the West African interior from the 11th century onwards. During the
16th century, Persian and Arabic traders brought Islam to the East African
Coast.
The education was religious in nature, thus most students memorize
the Qur'an.
.
Universities were established in Morrocco, Egypt, Sokoto, Fezzan
and Jenne. Students were able to study Arabic and mathematics as well as
traditional Islam, the science of Grammar, Law, theology etc.
In 1931, there were about 30 to 15,000 Koranic schools with students
estimated at about 369,000 pupils in Northern Nigeria alone. Crowther
estimated the number of students attending Koranic schools in French
West Africa at about 80,235 in 1945. At all levels, Muslim education linked
the pupil with the Arabic language and Islamic religion. The Fulani
conquest played a large part in the spread of Islamic religion and
education in Nigeria. The schools serviced as and link between the rulers
and the citizens with the Malams serving as middle men.
3.3.5
EDUCATION IN COLONIAL AFRICA
The 1840s marked the emergence of Western system of Education
into Africa. Indeed the period 1842 to 1882 was of great importance in the
historical development of formal Western education in Nigeria. The
Christian Missionaries in 1842 introduced literary education in to the
19
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
country. As a result of which they held the monopoly of education up to
1852. In fact they dictated and control formal education from 1842-1882. It
wasn’t until 1882 that the government began to show any interest in
education.
The colonial administration did not want to spend money on
education of Nigerians for the fear that when many Nigerians get
enlightened through education, they might day revolt and sent them
packing. In actual fact, the British to retain power as such only minimal
amount of money was spent on education of the people. For instance in
1877 only £200, was made available inform of grant in aid to Church
Missionary society, Wesieyan church and Roman Catholic mission who
were operating schools, in Lagos area. The colonial government was
basically more interested in economic advantage it would derive from
Nigeria rather than spending much money education the natives.
According to Fafunwa (1974) there was inbalance in Primary and
secondary enrolment in Nigeria (see Table below) :
Total Primary Enrolment
1954-1959
Year
Enrolment
1954
1,275,003
1955
1,759,533
1956
2,036,613
1957
3,447,873
1958
2,544,512
1959
2,775,938
Secondary enrolment
1954-1959
Year
Enrolment
1954
21,185
1955
27,347
1966
39,017
1957
36,188
1958
31,391
1959
47,650
Source: Fafunwa, A. History of Education in Nigeria
According to Uche (1984) the. British educators were interested in
producing a marginal man i.e. a minority in a society who share the
preferred culture to a significant degree but and blocked full participation.
To achieve this aim, education available was steeped in English language
and culture. This resulted in cultural, economic and social divisions in
society between those who went to school and divisions in society between
those' who went to school and those who did not.
The British Government did not allow the expansion of missionary
activities into Muslin areas to avoid conflict with the traditional rulers of
the areas.
Initially, the colonial government was not interested in expansion of
education of education in Nigeria, in fact it was its desire to restrict the
expansion of academic secondary schooling which according to the
government, was and inappropriate to African needs. Although the British
colonial government needed a good number of Nigerians with basic
20
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
western education, they introduced racial segregation in administration of
the colony. This then blocked the promotion of most educated Nigerians.
In fact Nigerians with the same educational qualification and experience
were receiving assistant in comparison with their British counterparts. In
the University College, Ibadan for instance the Nigerian Lecturers were
earning less than their British counterparts. Ironically, what the colonial
government did in those days is what the Nigerian government is doing to
its people today. Today a foreign lecturer in any Nigerian University earns
far more than a Nigerian Lecturer with the same academic qualification
and experience.
It should be noted that in the colonial days, parents too were not
interested in formal education because they: needed their children to help
on the farm; to train them in their own trade and skilled work; saw no
advantage from learning to read and write and then the chiefs and emirs
preferred their children to take to their footsteps.
According to Adamu (1973), the Northern Muslims were resistant to
western education because they felt the Koran contained all necessary
knowledge; and western education was equated with Christianity. The
Muslim parents were afraid that their Muslim children might be converted
to Christianity, as such they refused to send them to school even in the
southern part of the country, when they eventually relented refused, to
send their daughters to school for the following reasons:
1.
Factors associated with purdan and marriage customs of the Muslim
societies.
2.
The traditional antagonism towards western education and the
actual fear of moral laxity in schools.
Things have however changed, today a good number of girls in
Northern Nigeria are now at tending school and attitudes of people
towards education as a whole, have become positive.
3.3.6 CULTURE
Culture consists of all humanly created physical objects as well as
patterns for thinking, feeling and behaving that are passed from generation
to generation among members of a society. On the material or physical
side, culture in Nigeria include building houses, riding cars on the
normative of non-material side, Nigerian culture includes customs, beliefs,
rules and habits people follow. Let us illustrate this idea of material and
normative culture with a game of Lawn Tennis an example the tennis
shoos, bags, white uniforms (short skirt and blous for women, short for Tshirt for men), can all be regarded as material culture but the normative
culture would include would include the rules governing Lawn Tennis,
expected behaviour of players' and spectators as well as skills of the players
and concept of strategy. It should be noted at this stage that material
culture is an off shoot of normative culture. More concisely then, culture is
21
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
a society‘s total way of life. In sense, it is a blueprint or human behaviour.
It is a kind of mental map defining appropriate and inappropriate
behaviour for members of a society. Many authors have tried to define that
culture is and have all come to the conclusion that cultures are patterns of
behaviour, thoughts and feelings that are acquired or influenced through
learning and are characteristics of groups of people other than of
individuals.
Culture and society though interwoven, one cannot exist without the
other. However they are not identical. Culture is a society's to total way of
life; a society is composed of a people living within defined territorial
borders who share common culture. Since culture is created by people, it
must be taught and learned by people.
At this juncture, it is pertinent to point out that culture is never
static. In Nigeria for example, people from different ethic groups interact
with one another daily as a result of which new elements emerge mid
some times give way to old ones so one can categorically say past culture
determined today’s culture and today's culture would definitely determine
tomorrow’s culture.
3.3.6.1 YOUTH CULTURE
Youth culture is a tern used to indicate patterns of behaviopur
among young people which differ form, and some times in conflict with
those of their parents. It led to a new style pf social participation by young
people and to the emergence of a new adolescent personality activists.
3.4
SUMMARY
In pre-colonial Africa, roles and statuses are mostly
determined by birth. There were few societies that provided for
opportunities for equalitarian achievement. In another dimension,
some societies in Africa practice the caste system. Hence, most of the
structures of the societies were rigid based on lineages. Socialization
were strictly on ethnic lines and so on.
The traditional education in Africa was a communal type,
where the family and the community were responsible for the
education of the young persons. The set of teachers in the traditional
education were the elders of the society, composing of credible men
and women of the families and the communities. Children area
expected to learn when they are attached to elders for life
experiences and productive practice.
Girls are trained to take after their mothers as boys were
trained to take after their fathers. Hence, most of the girls training
were handle by their mothers, while boys training were taken care by
fathers. The traditional education do not have a formal place, time
22
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
and curriculum. Teaching and learning occurred when necessary
through the Childs practical life exercise.
The coming of the colonial education brought so many
changes in traditional system of education. There were introduction
of formal curriculum, time place and specialized teachers. New
culture and civilization were introduced. Education became a
process of preparation for practice and so on.
3.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
3.6
Compare the education of young in colonial Africa to the 21st
century system of educating the young.
REFERENCES
Balkemore and Cooksey, Sociology of Education for Africa forward
by A Babs Fafunwa George Allen Unwin.
3.7
SUGGESTED READING
Balkemore and Cooksey, Sociology of Education for Africa forward
by A Babs Fafunwa George Allen Unwin.
23
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0
TOPIC: FACTORS THAT ACCOUNT TO YOUTH
MOVEMENT/ CULTURE -
-
4.1
INTRODUCTION -
-
-
-
-
-
4.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
27
4.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
27
-
-
27
-
26
27
4.3.1 FACTORS THAT ACCOUNT FOR YOUTH
MOVEMENT/CULTURE
-
-
4.3.2 SOCIALIZATION AND THE LIFE CYCLE -
29
4.4
SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
30
4.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
30
4.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
30
4.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
30
-
-
24
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
4.0
4.1
UNIT: 2
TOPIC: FACTORS THAT ACCOUNT TO YOUTH
MOVEMENT/ CULTURE
INTRODUCTION
About 1960, there was wind of change as a result emerging
young educated Africans. This was as a result of changes in youth
statuses (i.e) economic affluence, intellectual development and the
adoption of social life style. This youth activists agitated for reforms
which included educational and political reforms.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Analyse the factors that motivated the youth movement.
ii.
Discuss the process of socialization in the lifecycle of the
youth.
4.3
IN-TEXT:
4.3.1
FACTORS THAT ACCOUNT TO YOUTH MOVEMENT/ CULTURE
In the American society where the youth culture was prominent the
early 60’s, the economic affluence gave young people a sense of material
security and opportunity for intellectual as well as social and allowed them
to develop a life-style considerably more expansionist, than had been
experienced by their parents. In Nigeria, it was the oil boom of the late 60’s
and early 70’s that accounts mainly for the students unrest, there was
money everywhere and so students then felts, they could voice their mind
out-they thus started asking for all sorts of things including political
reforms as well as strongly pressing for educational reforms.
Second, the method of child-rearing particularly among the upper
and middle class people ago a long way in explaining why the youth
attitude is prominent is this group. The upper class child performs his daily
activities in the presence of supervising adults who are seen as arbiters of
success and failure and failure and who provide structure. His life is
organized. Not only do adults construct the alternatives for him but they
are also the determiners of success under choices are made in their
presence and acted out under their surveillance. As such the child geared
to strong ambivalence towards structure and ambivalence is a motivation
factor in protest as it accounts for the greatest amount of violence as well.
Since entrance to the university coincides for many students
physically and psychologically with separation from home, it means hat
opportunity to become an independent person and to bring out
potentialities that were not fostered in the previous environment are given
a maximum chance for development before commitments to career, family
25
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
and other social institutes again blind the individual in stronger ways.
Therefore it is a period, of great anxiety, uncertainty and also of
opportunity for growth identity crisis.
Studies have shown that youth activists tend to come from homes
there their parents are well educated and more than those of non-activists.
A great part of student movement was not a protest by the socially
oppressed but by those who are well-to-do in the Nigeria society.
Third coalescence is a period in which people are at the prime of energy
and impulsivity, but many of our educational demands are for students to
literally and figuratively sit still. But then the educational institution either
forgets or neglects the fact that is a time when attempt at deeper and more
mature relations are made.
As students were fighting the establishment on campus, a parallel
movement was occurring marijuana, LSD, cocaine communers flower
children and hippies were also becoming rampant. Youth also pioneered a
revolution in sexual moves and conception of sex roles, leading at least
among great university students to the abrogation of the traditional
prolubition of premarital sex and giving great impetus to new striving
autonomy for women.
There are certain times, on the un-official university calendar at
which on off-campus phenomena of either a sexual or, aggressive .nature
take place. For example street cars may be stopped, girls hostels invaded,
beer drinking, engaging in immoral activities right on the campus etc.
university authorities may protest, punish and even expel some of the
participants but then no one feels that long-term stability is not threatened
as the same thing would repeat itself sometimes in the near future.
Students insurgent can also be categorized as part of youth culture.
The first truly national student rebellion against the government in Nigeria
was in 1973 when students protested against the idea of youth service,
calling for its abolishment etc.
In 1983 as well it was obvious that the student body was entirely
dissatisfied with the government particularly over the election issue, and
then the idea of school fees. They came out attacking the government
openly in newspapers etc. In the late 90's Nigeria. Students focused
essentially on political issues and Human Rights.
However, it should be noted that much as the students may be right
in most of their complaints, they do not always pass through the proper
channels. Instead, they go on the rampage and most of the time, they end
up loosing because in the end they do not achieve anything. Take for
instance the youths service case which led to loss of lives, inspite of this,
the service has come to stay.
Besides, those of them who engage immoral practices, do not end up
well in life. There are cases of students who go on drugs and eventually end
up in mental homes. The most annoying thing about student crisis is that
26
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
at the material time when they go on range breaking door glasses, burning
cars etc. they do not see anything wrong in what they are doing. In fact they
feel it is the best they could do but then they end up paying for the broken
items later. Those this make sense at all? And is students unrest worth it at
all?
4.3.2
SOCIALIZATION AND THE LIFE CYCLE
Socialization can be defined the process of bringing up the young to
understand the norms, beliefs and tradition of the society in which he/she
is born and in which he/she will participate fully;
Socialization is complex learning process through individuals
develop selfhood and acquire knowledge, skills and motivations required
for participation in social life. Though learning occurs that occurs in
childhood lays the foundation for future development one should
remember that it is a life long process.
The child learns language skills, control of impulses, it develops a
self, and it learns about the physical and social world and becomes capable
of taking social roles.
The child learns whether its a male or a female. It internalizes or
accepts as its own the norms and values of the family and let under society
socialization continues throughout life.
Socialization moves beyond family, neighbourhood, enters school,
becomes adolescent marry rear children, get to muddle age and dying – all
involve essential lessons to be learnt.
Effective socialization is as essential for society as it is for individual.
Nigerian society could not continue to exists unless the hundreds of
thousands or new members born each year learned to think, behave and
behave as Nigerians. Each new generation must learn society’s culture,
accept societal values and aesthetics as their own.
4.4
SUMMARY
This topic discussed the changes that occurred as a result of
the western civilization that socialized young Africans. These youths
movement mostly took place in higher institutions, especially in the
Universities. The youth agitated for general reforms (i.e) social,
economical political and educational reforms.
4.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
4.6
Account for the factors responsible for students’ Unrest in
Nigeria Universities today.
REFERENCES
27
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Deem, R. (1978), Women and Schooling, Rutledge and Kegan Paul
London.
4.7
SUGGESTED READING
Balkemore and Cooksey, Sociology of Education for Africa forward
by A Babs Fafunwa George Allen Unwin.
Morgan D. H. J. (1995), Social Theory and The Family Rutledge
and Kegan Paul.
28
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 5:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
5.0
TOPIC: DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOCIALIZATION -
31
5.1
INTRODUCTION -
-
-
-
-
-
32
5.2
OBJECTIVES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
32
5.3
IN-TEXT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
32
-
32
-
5.3.1 DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOCIALIZATION
5.3.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADULT AND
CHILDHOOD SOCIALIZATION 34
5.3.3 SOCIALIZATION IN CHILDHOOD
AND ADOLESCENCE MAJOR EFFECTS OF
THE FAMILY
5.3.4 THE PLACE OF THE SCHOOL
IN SOCIALIZATION 35
5.3.5 PEER GROUP AND SOCIALIZATION 36
5.3.6 ROLE OF THE MASS MEDIA IN
SOCIALIZATION
5.3.7 THE SOCIALIZATION AND THE SCHOOL 38
5.3.8 HOW TEXTBOOKS SOCIALIZE CHILDREN 39
5.3.9 HOW TEACHERS SOCIALIST CHILDREN 39
5.3.10
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE 40
5.3.11 EDUCATION AND HUMAN CAPITAL
MODEL 5.3.12
ROLE OF SCHOOL IN CONTEMPORARY
SOCIETY THE SOCIAL PURPOSES OF
EDUCATION
5.3.13
SOCIAL CONTROL
-
37
40
42
42
5.4
SUMMARY -
-
-
-
-
43
5.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
-
-
-
-
43
5.6
REFERENCES
-
-
-
-
-
-
43
5.7
SUGGESTED READING -
-
-
-
-
43
-
-
35
29
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
5.0
TOPIC: DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOCIALIZATION
5.1
INTRODUCTION
UNIT: 2
This topic presented different types and sources of
socialization among children, adolescences and adult. It also
assessed the contribution of media, school family and peer group in
the processes of socialization. In the later part the topic considered
education as a social change.
5.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the study, you should be able to:
i.
Identify the difference types of socializations
ii.
Identify and discuss the agent of socialization
iii.
Analyze the education as a social change
5.3
IN-TEXT:
5.3.1
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOCIALIZATION
5.3.1.1 PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION
This is the basic socialization which occurs in childhood, requires the
child to learn the following:Development of individual identity.
Learning of cognitive skills and self control.
The internalization of moral standards and appropriate
attitude and motivations.
Understanding of societal roles.
5.3.1.2 ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION
-
-
It is that which occurs before the actual playing of roles. This
reharsal for the future involves learning something about role
requirements both behaviors and attitudes and visualizing in
the role.
Law students mentally try on the role of lawyer ever before
becoming lawyers.
We think about being married being parents before we
actually assume the statuses.,
A good deal of primary socialization is actually anticipatory
raining for future adult roles.
The expectation for such roles are often conveyed to children and
adolescents by parental teaching and example.
30
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Peer group, schools and mass media are also agents of anticipatory
socialization.
5.3.1.3 ADULT SOCIALIZATION
Adult socialization is that which occurs beyond childhood. Primary
socialization lays the foundation of later learning but it cannot completely
prepare people for adulthood.
For one thing, age graded society confronts individual with new role
expectations as they move through life.
People must learn how to be workers, parents etc.
As society changes people must equip themselves to deal with new
situations.
For example in Nigeria economic situation is greeting worse. There
is fuel crisis, taxis becoming N10 per drop, food prices keep going up, but
them we learn how to cope.
Some individuals encounter specialized situations to which they
must adjust, e.g geographical and social mobility. People move from
Nigeria to live in America where they use different cultures and a totally
new place. When there is marriage break-down etc. all these require
further socialization.
Primary socialization does provide groundwork for later learning
though it cannot simply prepare people for roles and actions that are parts
and parcels of the society.
However, we should note the major structure of personality are
formed in childhood.
Besides early years constitute a critical period in the sense that is
comes easily.
Lessons learnt are first lessons that is during primary socialization.
Primary socialization sets limits for adult socialization. For example
a person who emerges from childhood without a strong motivation to
achieve is unlikely to excel in Engineering, Medical school, Pharmacy etc.
so a number of differences exist between primary and adult socializations.
5.3.2
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADULT AND CHILDHOOD SOCIALIZATION
With some exceptions adult socialization concentrates on their
behaviour rather than values and motives. Adult already hold values
appropriate for a given role and are motivated to pursue that role. All that
remains is to teach them how higher institutions to attempt to convince
students of the value of neither education or motivate them to work hard
on their studies.
31
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Primary socialization tends to be idealistic adult socialization tends
to be realistic e.g. children are taught how society ideally operates and how
people behave. They are shielded from the knowledge or how society
actually behave. Parents teach children to be honest and they cheat their
own income tax.
Content of adult socialization is more specific than content of
primary socialization. Children learn general knowledge skills and
behaivour relevant to many roles.
Adults on the other hand acquire information specific to particular
roles e.g. children learn to read and write. This knowledge is useful, in a
wide variety of situations. By contrast adults learn to take care of babies or
to connect light into a place where a boards.
Wire aboard.
This knowledge pertains to toe: parent and electronic technician role
and does not apply elsewhere. Adults as a, general rule are socialized by
formal organizations while children are socialized in informal context. This
distinction reflects a general tendency other than a rule e.g the school
though a formal organization is an important primary socialization
agency.
Also the actual socializing of adults within, organization is often
done through primary relationships. “Everyone who makes it in Nigeria
has a God father".
The nature of relationship between socializer and socialize differs
primarily and adult socialization. The family the major socializer of the
child.
Because of the emotionally charged to reward and punish, parents
have tremendous impact on the child. By contrast the relationship between
adult socializer and socialize is more emotionally neutral and more equal in
terms of power. Moreover, the adult socializee is often in that position
voluntarily. Student teacher relationship for example, you choose to be an
apprentice tailor or welder, but then the youngest son in Umaru's family
did not choose his fate.
Socialization is not simply the process by which parents teach
children to fit into their culture. Socialization is influenced many other
social elements as well and it occurs throughout life.
The stages in the life cycle are not strictly defined by biology; they
are also socially and culturally defined.
5.3.3
SOCIALIZATION IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE MAJOR EFFECTS OF THE
FAMILY
The child's first exposure to the world occurs within the family.
Being dependent and highly impressionable the child is virtually
defenseless during the first few years of life. By the time, chi ld develops
some independence and judgment, much of the socializing work of the
32
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
family, has been accomplished. Personality development does not end et
age 5, but a foundation for late development has been firmly established by
then. Through close interaction with a small number of people none of
whom the child has selected - the child learns to think and speak
internalizes norms, beliefs and values; forms some basic attitudes develops
a capacity (or incapacity) for intimate and personal relationships, and
acquires a self-image.
The impact of the family, reaches, far beyond its direct effects on
personal and social development of the child.
One's family of birth
largely determines one's place in society. At birth our family bestows on us
social characteristics, that significant affect what we think of ourselves and
haw others treat us.
5.3.4
THE PLACE OF THE SCHOOL IN SOCIALIZATION
In school, children f or the first time are under the care and
supervision of adults who are not relatives, the first year of school involves
a transition from environment saturated with personal relationships to one
that is more impersonal. Rewards and punishments are based more on
performance than on personality. Although a mother may accept any
picture that her child draws as good work, a teacher evaluates all members
of the class by the same standards and informs students who are not
meeting these standards.
Slowly children are taught to be less dependent emotionally on their
parents. In addition, the school ties children to the broader society by
creating feelings of loyalty and allegiance to something beyond their
families.
The socialization process in school involves more than teaching skills
(reading, writing) or subject matter (mathematics, English). Underlying
the formal goals of the school is what has to come to' be known as a hidden
curriculum - the informal and unofficial things that children are taught in
order to prepare them for life in the larger society. The hidden curriculum
teaches them such matters as discipline order, co-operativeness and conformity, skills thought to be needed for success in modern bureaucratic
society whether the child becomes a doctor, college president, secretary,
assembly line worker or professional athlete. The schools use a variety of
means to prepare children for 20th century civilization and life in school is
like the real world, run by the clock. Whether or not a student really
understands something she has been working on and whether or not a
child is psychologically ready to switch to completely different subject, a
bell signals that all children must move to the next scheduled event. Setting
through a predetermined set of activities given time period often becomes
more important than learning. There are rules and regulations to cover
almost all activities how to dress, how to wear ones hair, which side of the
hall to walk on, when .to speak in class, when to go to the bathroom.
33
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Teachers reward children with praise and acceptance when they recite the
right answers behave 'properly' or exhibit desirable attitudes. Children nay
be embarrassed or ignored when they fail in the teacher eye.
5.3.5
PEER GROUP AND SOCIALIZATION
The family and the school are both agencies of socialization
organized and operated by adults. The peer group composed of individuals
or roughly, the child’s same age and with similar interests. It is the only
agency of socialization that is not controlled primarily by adults.
The peer group contributes to socialization by providing children
with experiences that are unlikely to be provided within the family. Since
children are subordinate to adult in the family, the peer group provides
them an opportunity to engage in give and take relationships usually not
possible at home. They learn to engage in exchange and in conflicting
competitive and co-operative relationships with others. The peer group
also, gives children experience in self direction. Children can begin to make
their own decisions, experiment with new ways of thinking, feeling and
behaving and engage in an activities that involve self-expression.
Independence from adults is also promoted by the peer groups, because it
introduces the child to a world that is often in conflict with the adult world.
Children learn to be different from their parents is certain ways, step that
contributes to the development of self-sufficiency. These experiences
cannot easily be obtained within the more rigidly organized family and,
school environments. A capacity for intimacy can also be enhanced with
within the peer group because it provides an opportunity for children to
develop .close ties with friends they choose including members of the
opposite sex. At the same time that children are making close friends with
a few individual, they are learning to a get along with large number of
people many of whom are quite different from them. This helps to develop
the social flexibility needed in a mobile rapidly changing society. The
ability to participate effectively in adult life is also cultivated through
learning to act in accordance with the peer groups unwritten web of rules.
The rise of formal education has contributed immensely to the emergence
of a per world that is not only separate from adults beyond their control.
Children are isolated from adult society by being best apart in school for
most of their pre-adult lives. Because they are separated from adult world
for such a long time young people are forced to develop on one another for
social life. Consequently, they form what is referred to as adolescent subculture, complete with its own mode of dress, jargon, rituals, values,
norms, beliefs and attitudes.
Another factor contributing to the rise of an adolescent sub-culture
is the distribution of population in advanced industrial societies. The
majority of Nigerians now live in either urban or sub-urban areas.
34
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Because many parents spend much of their time away from home,
children spend more time with their peer than they do with their parents
once they reach the upper level of grade schools. Peer groups fill the
vacuum created in the lives of the children who receive an insufficient
amount of attention from their parents.
5.3.6
ROLE OF THE MASS MEDIA IN SOCIALIZATION
The mass media are those means of communication that reach large
heterogeneous audiences without any personal interaction between the
senders and receivers of massages. Television, radio, newspapers,
magazines, movies, records and tapes and books are the major forms of
mass communication media. Nearly everyone agrees the at the mass media
are powerful socializing agencies but it is difficult to measure their effects.
Any medium with which people spend so much time must contribute
significantly to the socialization process.
Watching aggressive behaviour or television significantly increases
the expression of aggressive inputs. One of the primary functions of the
media in the socialization process is introducing children to their culture.
From the mass media children learn of the behaviour expect of individuals
in certain social statuses. Despite the fact that these popular images are
usually highly distorted and police work is not as exciting and glamorous as
depicture in books movies and on television:- They never-the-less
introduce children to certain aspect of their culture .
The mass media also display role models, that children can imitate.
They usually present characters in such simple one sided that it is easy to
recognize behaviour suitable for men, women, heroes and villains earning
these role models helps to intergrate the young into society.
Advertising, for example gives children ideas about what is valued in
their society. It provides the child with a slick idealized picture of –
importance of such things as success, money consumption, sex, youth and
good looks in American society.
5.3.7 THE SOCIALIZATION AND THE SCHOOL
The school as socializer: Modern society places considerable
emphasis on the verbal mathematical and writing skills an adult needs to
get a job, read the newspaper, balance a checkbook and compute income
taxes. Consequently children in the early grades spend the majority of their
day being drilled in spelling lessons multiplication tables, sentence
construction and reading comprehension. However, schools teach much
more than basic academic skills. They also transmit to children a variety of
values, norms, beliefs and attitudes. There is a hidden curriculum that that
goes far beyond learning grammar, mathematics, reading and other
academic skills. The hidden curriculum teaches children such things .as
35
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
discipline, order, co-operativeness and conformity, skills thought to be
necessary for success in modern bureaucratic society, whether one
becomes a doctor, or Vice-Chancellor, schools for example enable children
to make the transition from their closely knit co-operative family to the
'loosely knit competitive adult world. According to Robert Dreeben (1968)
the school provides systematic practice at acquiring adult norms. Schools
teach children to think of themselves as students and to operate
independently in the pursuit of academic achievement. The values of
independence and achievement are emphasized through individual testing
and grading students learn to concentrate on specific skills by being
evaluated for performance in mathematics. Children also learn that their
teachers evaluate them as students not as equals.
Although the major functions of schools is to teach basic academic
skills, they teach much more than this. For one academic aspect of school
socialization are textbooks and the teachers themselves.
5.3.8
HOW TEXTBOOKS SOCIALIZE CHILDREN
The school curriculum contains numerous political and social
science courses. Potentially neutral courses such as history and
government are in favour of particular society’s view of history. Accounts of
the Biafran revolution cum civil war for example are not the same in books
written by the Yorubas and the ones written by the Ibos. The resistance of
schools in presenting critical accounts of their history is especially,
apparent when a teacher attempts to introduce a controversial book such
as the ones written by Wole Soyinka. “The Man Died" and that of Obasanjo
on the civil war "Nzeogwu".
School textbooks contain many implicit values and sociologists
interested gender-role stereotypes point out 'hat elementary textbooks tend
to show men engaged in challenging and aggressive activities but portray
women as home-makers, mothers, nurses, secretaries. Not also are women
portrayed in traditional roles, they also appear for less frequently than
men. Similarly; the picture of Abuja presidential lodge may be part of the
world is view of Nigerian Middle Class 'out Parents or the poor children
will see this as portraying the choice of Nigerian dominant group and such
pictures may make poor kids feel out of place in school.
5.3.9
HOW TEACHERS SOCIALIST CHILDREN
Classroom teachers have a unique and important role in socializing
children. For many children, teachers are the first authority figures who are
not 'relatives, they encounter on a daily basis. In addition most parents
urge their children to do as their teachers ask, their children’s future may
well be affected by their success or failure in school.
36
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Teachers often socialize children intentionally by requesting them to
perform academic tasks in prescribed ways. At the same time, teacher
affect children Unintentionally. The teacher may be an incident middle
class behaviour the children, that is the children may learn how respectable
adults behave without conscious efforts on the part of either the teacher or
the teacher the children.
Note the self fulfilling prophecy in school i.e. the tendency of people
to behave in ways they think others expect them to act.
5.3.10 EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE
The role of education has changed dramatically over the years. There
have been changes in who goes to school and how long they remain in
school. Schools have become increasingly bureaucratic and have exerted
more than more influence over the lives of the young. The link between
education and occupational status has grown stronger and schools have
more influence over who gets into what occupations. Another dramatic
change is the way people have increasingly been used for the social and
economic growth of modern societies.
5.3.11 EDUCATION AND HUMAN CAPITAL MODEL
According to human capital model, a people's skills and aptitudes
should be used for economic betterment of their society as well as for their
personal monetary and prestige payoffs. In other words a nation’s
economic output does no t depend solely on raw materials or the value of a
society's industrial facilities; workers' skills also contribute to a society’s
economic productivity. More thoroughly qualified workers produce a
greater economic return. Thus the value of a society’s output depends part
on the level of individuals’ skills the human capital of a society.
According to this model, when you learn to pain pictures, you are
engaging in consumption activities. When you learn to operate a computer
you are investing in your own human capital. Proponents of the human
capital model argue that societies in the process of developing economically cannot afford to view education as a matter of consumption.
Rather, they should use institutions to provide skills for individuals who
can contribute to the economy. In essence the more socially valuables skills
that people acquire, the more they are investing in later economic returns
to themselves and their society. In Nigeria like all, other developing
countries there is the belief that individuals should be regarded as natural
resources. According to Bennet and Mayer (1978) developing countries are
so concerned with economic growth that national institutions including
school are playing an increasingly active role in childhood socialization. Of
course, this means that the lives of children are becoming more and more
the concern of government bureaucracies. Instead of parents deciding by
37
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
themselves how their children will grow up and what type of futures hey
will have they are receiving more help from government experts. The
intrusion of government into our daily' lives is only one aspect of a
potentially larger problem. Some critics and observers see government as,
merely one of anything institutions and organizations competing for
control over us.
According to Uche (1986) Education in Nigeria today has
increasingly come under new command as it is heading toward a new
‘quantity' and 'quality' direction in the areas of science and Technology.
Since education brings about social change, evidence abounds everywhere
in Nigeria of waves in human endeavor. There is also social and political
revolution. Uche went on to cite examples of how traditional values have
been rejected and new ones adopted.
Because Western Technology is involved in creation of things, its
influence threatens to control peoples lives and activities in Nigeria for
example today, with the introduction of Technology, there has been
revolution in the area of agriculture with the development of new
techniques and the establishment of industrial and agricultural technology.
Fertilizers improved mechanical devices and seeds were introduced. With
this new development, the importance of management, economics,
accountancy as well as genetics cannot be ruled out. Thus today, farming in
Nigeria has taken a new shape. In fact to be a highly successful farmer in
Nigeria today there is need to have a technical ‘known how’ or to employ
one with the techniques and qualification to run farms successfully.
In the areas of communication the influence of technology cannot be
ruled out. There have been developments in transportation and
communication system, with the use of efficient telephone systems, telex
and fax to transport messages within seconds. These are changes education
has brought into our lives.
There is no gainsaying to the fact that education has brought positive
changes into our lives in Nigeria today but then it has also relegated our
culture to the background. For example today Nigerians particularly they
value foreign things more than things made in Nigeria.
38
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
5.3.12
UNIT: 2
ROLE OF SCHOOL IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY THE SOCIAL PURPOSES OF
EDUCATION
Learning is a process that: takes place throughout life. It includes the
social and personal experiences that: alter one’s knowledge, behaviour and
attitudes. But no society leave such experiences to chance. One of the
oldest social institution is education the formal direction of learning
experiences. The educational institution serves certain basic social
purposes The most familiar of education is socialization or the
transmission of cultural knowledge, value and beliefs. Another purpose is
social control, whereby schools regulate the way in which people behave.
By helping people choose and learn social roles, the educational institution
attempts to ensure an adequate supply of trained people to fill needed
occupation in an effort to match peoples talents and abilities with the
needs to specialized occupational roles, school channel children into
different areas of study and place them at distinct academic levels.
5.3.13 SOCIAL CONTROL
The socialization function of education goes far beyond merely
reaching values and norms, however, schools are also expected to convince
their students that it is necessary to behave according to these principles.
Indeed students are graded not only on how well they co-operate, how
orderly they are and even how clean they keep themselves. In early years of
schooling these are the only kinds of things on which they are the given
marks. If children do not behave according to certain norms by the time
they enter the 3rd or 4th grade they will have had time no matter how well
they perform in academic subjects. Thus through the process of
socialization schools are directly engaged in social control. This includes
instilling loyalty, obedience to authority.
Schools promote social control by teaching the children to idealize
nations leaders. People in power are presented in such a way that it is not
easy to question their authority.
Second schools serve as custodial institutions for nations young,
young, keeping children off streets for many hours or the day.
3rd schools also try to channel youth into socially approved activities
and jobs when children show interest in disapproved areas or are identified
as having behaviour problems the school may keep close watch over them
for years.
5.4
SUMMARY:
The topic discussed primmer socialization which occurs in
childhood. The child is expected to develop individual identity,
39
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
cognitive skills and self control, and appropriate attitude. Adult
socialization is that which occurs beyond childhood.
In socialization process, the following agents play prominent roles:a.
Family
b.
School
c.
School
d.
Media
e.
Peer group
Finally education general plays the roles of social change in a society
5.4
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
5.6
Explain the differences
socialization
between
adult and
childhood
REFERENCES
Balkemore and Cooksey, Sociology of Education for Africa forward
by A Babs Fafunwa George Allen Unwin.
5.7
SUGGESTED READING
Balkemore and Cooksey, Sociology of Education for Africa forward
by A Babs Fafunwa George Allen Unwin.
40
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
SOLUTION TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1:
1. Everything about a way of life is learnt
2. The infant is very receptive to experience
3. The infant is totally dependent from birth and for a very long time on
other people.
Students are expected to develop the above points based on class
discussion and class notes. Reverences (1) Brembeck and Grandstaff –
social foundations of education.
TOPIC 2:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Reflecting and typifying the larger
Purifying the activities of the society and its environment
Simplifying the activities of the society in its environment
Balancing the activities of the society in its environments.
Students are expected to take each of the above points illustrate how
the school performs these functions using local examples for example on
function which is reflecting and typifying the large society outside its by
making reference to the fact that since students are parts and pacel of the
society, i.e they are born in this society, they function in the same society so
it’s the duty of the school to teach them norms and values of the society in
nature society teaching the children.
TOPIC 3:
In presenting this question, students are expected to highlight and
develop the following:
The subordination of women to men in pre-colonial era in
comparison to the relationship between men and women in the
present century.
Education of boys in pre-colonial era centred around the men as
opposed to the exposure they have today.
Education of girls centred around the old women and the home as
opposed o the formal system or educating girls today
Narration of great stories
Keeping the family name
Participation in religious activities
Vocational guidance
Initiation of the order ones
Low status of women. The above points are to be developed and
compared to what obtains in the present century.
TOPIC 4:
41
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
Account for the factors responsible for students unrest Nigeria in Nigerian
Universities today students?
Students are expected to develop the factors listed below.
1.
The oil boom of the late 603 and the early 70s in Nigeria.
2.
Method of child rearing particularly among the upper and middle
class people.
3.
Physical and psychological emotion of leaving home for the 1st lime.
4.
Adolescence period being a time of impulsivity
TOPIC 5:
Students are expected to develop the points listed below with adequate
illustrations.
1.
Primary socialization tends to be idealistic whereas adult
socialization is realistic.
2.
Content of primary socialization is general whereas content of adult
socialization is more specific.
3.
Adults in general are socialized informal setting whereas children are
socialized in informal setting.
4.
Nature of relationship between socialize and socialize differs in
primary and adult socialization. For example the relationship
between socialize and socialize is always emotionally charged in
childhood socialization whereas in adult socialization the
relationship is emotional neutral.
42
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
EDU 203 – SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
UNIT: 2
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1.
Explain the social roles of the school.
2.
The socialization function of education goes far
beyond merely teaching values and norms.
Discuss.
John Dewey explained four functions for an ideal
school. What are these functions? Elaborate on
them.
3.
4.
5.
What are the factors responsible for Students’ unrest
in Nigerian Universities?
Compare and Contrast between the sociology of
education and educational sociology.
43
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri