WATER AUTHORITY
The Natural Water Resources
Between the Mediterranean Sea
and the Jordan River
Gavriel Weinberger
Head of Israel Hydrological Service
Yakov Livshitz
Amir Givati
Michael Zilberbrand
Adi Tal
Menachem Weiss
Arik Zurieli
Jerusalem - 2012
Table of contents
Preface
Abstract
1.
Introduction ..........................................................................................................1
2.
Methodology ........................................................................................................2
3.
Surface Water Flow in the Western and Eastern Basins......................................4
4.
Summary Tables of Recharge into the Sources ..................................................8
5.
Individual Basins
5.1
Lake Kinneret Watershed .........................................................................14
5.2
Western Galilee Basin ..............................................................................21
5.3
Carmel Basin.............................................................................................25
5.4
Coastal Basin ............................................................................................28
5.4.1 The Coastal Basin within Israel ..........................................................30
5.4.2 The Coastal Basin within the Gaza Strip ............................................31
5.5
Lower Galilee Basin.................................................................................32
5.6
Northeast Mountain Basins ......................................................................34
5.7
Eastern Mountain Basins .........................................................................37
5.8
Western Mountain Basin (Yarkon-Taninim) ...........................................43
5.9
Negev and Arava Basins ..........................................................................49
5.10 Summary of Recharge Estimates for all Basins .......................................54
6.
Appendix……………………………………………………………………….. 59
7.
References .............................................................................................................60
List of Figures
1.
Schematic Delineation of the Major Water Basins in the studied area..................... 2
2.
Average Annual Rainfall and Evaporation across the studied area .......................... 5
3.
The Western, Eastern and Kinneret Drainage Areas. ............................................... 6
4.
Regional Map of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Lake Kinneret Watershed
including the upper catchments of the Jordan River and the direct watersheds
(east and west)............................................................................................................ 14
5.
Water Balance in the Kinneret Basin, average values for the period 1976-2009…..16
6.
Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Kinneret Basin ............................................16
i
7.
Annual Average of Actual and Predicted Available Water in Lake Kinneret ..........19
8.
Decreasing Trend of Available Water in Lake Kinneret ..........................................20
9.
Simulated Trends of Mean Seasonal Precipitation for the Period 2030-2060 ..........21
10.
The Western Galilee Basin .......................................................................................22
11.
Hydro-Stratigraphic Column for Northern Israel. ....................................................23
12.
Water Level Map and Flow Direction in the Western Galilee Basin. ......................23
13.
Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Western Galilee Basin. ................................24
14.
Structural Map (top of Judea Group) of the Carmel Basin .......................................25
15.
Groundwater Contour Map of Carmel Basin ............................................................26
16.
Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Carmel Basin ...............................................27
17.
Location Map of the Coastal Basin ...........................................................................29
18.
Typical Hydrogeological Section of Israel’s Coastal Aquifer ..................................30
19.
Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Coastal Basin ...............................................31
20.
Water Level Map and Groundwater Flow Directions (Fall, 1998) in the Gaza
Area of the Coastal Basin ..........................................................................................32
21.
Lower Galilee Basin Location Map and Lithostratigraphic Column with Major
Hydrogeologic Units .................................................................................................33
22.
Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Lower Galilee Basin ....................................33
23.
Northeast Mountain Basin Location Map and Lithostratigraphic Column with
Major Hydrogeologic Units .....................................................................................35
24.
Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Northeast Mountain Basin ...........................37
25.
Eastern Mountain Basin Location Map and Lithostratigraphic Column with
Major Hydrogeologic Units ......................................................................................38
26.
Major Springs in the Eastern and Northeastern Mountain Basins with
Approximate Annual Discharge ..............................................................................41
27.
Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Eastern Mountain Basin based on a
Calibrated Cell-Balance Model................................................................................42
28.
Boundaries of the Western Mountain Basin including the Historical (1950s)
Spring Discharges .....................................................................................................44
29.
Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Western (Yarkon-Taninim)
Mountain Basin. .......................................................................................................45
30.
Distribution of High Salinity Groundwater in the Western Mountain Basin. ..........46
31.
Relationship Between the Discrepancy of Estimated Storage Change and the
Calculated Recharge ................................................................................................47
32.
Recharge Time Series for three most Updated Models of the
Yarkon-Taninim Basin..............................................................................................49
33.
Location Map of the Negev and Arava Basin ...........................................................50
34.
Hydro-stratigraphy of the Negev and Arava Basin...................................................51
35.
Maps of Recharge Distribution to a). Hatzeva and Dead Sea Group Aquifers,
b). Judea Group Aquifer, c). Kurnub Group Aquifer, throughout the Various
Areas of the Negev and Arava Basin ......................................................................52
36.
Average and Median Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the Entire Time
Period, 1973-2009 ....................................................................................................55
37.
Average and Median Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the Recent Time
Period, 1993-2009 ....................................................................................................56
38.
Comparison Between the Average Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the
Earlier Time Period (1973-1992) and the Later Time Period (1993-2009) .............56
39.
Average and Median Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the Entire Time
Period (1973-2009) with Chloride Concentration Below 400 mg/l.........................57
40.
Average and Median Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the Recent Time
Period (1993-2009) with Chloride Concentration Below 400 mg/l.........................57
41.
Comparison Between the Average Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the
Earlier Time Period (1973-1992) and the Later Time Period (1993-2009) with
Chloride Concentration Below 400 mg/l. ...............................................................58
42.
Rainfall in the Middle East for the Period of 1993-2009 compared to the Period of
1973-1992 .................................................................................................................58
List of Tables
1.
Annual Measured Flood Volumes and Runoff/Precipitation Coefficients for
the Western Drainage Area…………………………………………………………..7
2.
Average and Median Flood Volumes in the Western Drainage Area………………..8
3.
Average Annual Recharge into the Major Hydrological Basins for the
Period 1973-1992…………………………………………………………………….9
4.
Average Annual Recharge into the Major Hydrological Basins for the
Period 1993-2009…………………………………………………………………....10
5.
Average Annual Recharge into the Major Hydrological Basins for the
Combined Period 1973-2009……………………………………………….……….11
6.
Annual Recharge from Rainfall for the Major Basins with Statistical
Parameters for time periods: 1973-1992, 1993-2009 and 1973-2009……………. 12
7.
Annual Total Recharge into areas with Chloride Concentration less than
400 mg/l for the Major Basins with Statistical Parameters for time periods:
1973-1992, 1993-2009 and 1973-2009…………………………………………….13
8.
Water Balance in the Kinneret Watershed ...........................................................….18
9.
Statistics of the Water Balance for the Kinneret Watershed
at different periods. ..............................................................................................….19
10.
Summary of the Climate, Hydrological, Evaporation and Salinity
Concentration Models and the Effect on Water Availability in Lake
Kinneret...............................................................................................................….20
11.
Summary of Water Balance Estimations for the Coastal Aquifer
in the Gaza Strip...................................................................................................….30
12.
Average and Median Annual Recharge Estimates for the Northeast Mountain
Basin Aquifers for three time periods. .................................................................….36
13.
Average and Median Annual Recharge Estimates for the Eastern Basin from
Two Separate Models………………………………………………………………42
14.
Summary of Recharge Distribution for the Various Aquifers in the Negev
and Arava Basin according to Chloride Concentrations. .....................................….53
Appendix
General Theory of Cell-Balance Model Used by the Israel Hydrologic
Service for Estimating Recharge to Groundwater Basins..................................................59
Preface
Dear Friends,
We are honored to present you the following report "The Natural Water Resources
between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River". This work is a result of
profound and comprehensive analysis based on the most up to date hydrological
data collected and the recent research conducted on the available groundwater and
surface water resources in the area between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan
River.
We truly hope that this report will be a toolkit for the professional community in
the region, as well as for the decision makers, and the wide audience interested in
the water issues in the Middle East. The utmost importance is given to the basic
axiom in our region – the natural water resources are stressed, and the continuous
water crisis is a fact of life. The key for coping with this mutual challenge on the
sustainable basis is lying in the Integrated Water Resources Management,
including water recycling, effective use of natural water resources and water
saving.
Our appreciation is given to the hydrological specialists and to the professional
staff of the Hydrological Service of Israel in the Governmental Authority for Water
and Sewage, for putting the efforts to complete this important report.
Alexander Kushnir
Director General
The Governmental Authority for Water and Sewage
Abstract
The Israel Hydrological Service staff has prepared this detailed report which
presents the complete water resource potential (natural recharge) in the area
between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River.
Each of the basins within the study area is described separately, including a hydrogeologic background, the methods of calculating the recharge estimates, and their
results. The results are presented in Tables 3 thru 7 and the statistical parameters
in Figures 36 to 41. It is shown that the total, average natural recharge for Israel
(chloride concentrations both above and below 400 mg/l) is between 1.6 and 1.8
billion cubic meters per year, depending on the averaging period.
For chloride concentrations below 400 mg/l alone (the recommended drinking
water standard), the average natural recharge is between 1.4 and 1.6 billion cubic
meters per year.
It is also shown that the overall recharge in Israel has decreased significantly over
the past 40 years.
A comparison between the periods prior and subsequent to 1993 shows a decrease
of up to 13% in the natural water resource potential. Regional climate and water
resources models suggest that this trend will continue for the next 25 years.
Acknowledgment:
We would like to express our gratitude to Emeritus Prof. Uri Shamir, Senior Consultant to the Water
Authority, from the Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stephen and Nancy Grand Water
Research Institute, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, for his helpful suggestions and to Prof.
Haim Gvirtzman from the Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem for his advice
and support.
1. Introduction
The goal of this report is to present the relevant hydrogeologic data collected,
analyzed and interpreted by the Israel Hydrologic Service relating to the potential of
natural water resources between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The
area's delineation (Figure 1) is based entirely on hydrological considerations, designed
to provide the pertinent data for the management of water resources under any and all
political arrangements. Many of the locations and sources are designated in the report
by the names used in Israel, as the report relies on maps, data, models and reports
produced by Israel.
The report deals with surface water flows and groundwater recharge volumes
originating from precipitation, with attention given to water salinity and flow between
the various basins. The report pertains to the water sources from the Mediterranean
coast on the west to the Jordan River and Arava Valley on the east, including the
Golan Heights and covers the following basins/aquifers: Kinneret, Western Galilee,
Carmel, Coastal, Lower Galilee, Northeast Mountain, Eastern Mountain, Western
Mountain (Yarkon-Taninim) and the Negev and Arava. The Gaza Strip is considered
separately in the report although it is hydrologically inseparable from the Coastal
Aquifer.
The data presented in the report are divided into three time-periods: 1973-1992, 19932009, and the combined period 1973-2009, to facilitate presentation of changes over
time. For each time period the averages, medians and standard deviations are
presented as statistical indicators. In some cases the available data do not cover the
entire period.
All of the data presented here are available to the public in the annual reports:
“Development, Utilization and Status of Israel’s Water Resources” and “The Israel
Hydrologic Yearbook” (both in Hebrew) compiled by the Israel Hydrologic Service.
The reports can also be found on the Israel Water Authority website:
http://www.water.gov.il
1
Western
Galilee
Carmel
Kinnert
Lower Galilee
Northeastern
Mountain
Coastal
Aquifer
Eastern Mountain
Aquifer
Western Mountain
Aquifer
Negev
Arava
Figure 1. Schematic Delineation of the Major Water Basins in the studied area.
It should be noted that the Treaty of Peace between Israel and the Hashemite
Kingdom of Jordan (1994), includes an agreement on water. The content of this
agreement has an impact on the water resources in the region.
Reference is also made to Oslo II Interim Agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip
between Israel and the PLO (1995), which includes agreed provisions on the coordinated
management of water resources and sewage. This Agreement remains in effect to date.
2. Methodology
The hydrology of the region, including the recharge of the water resources and flow
between adjacent basins, is affected by the variability of precipitation (natural and/or
man-made) and by anthropogenic actions. The latter include water extractions for use
in the basin, and changes in infiltration and runoff due to land development and return
flows.
The calculations of the historical natural recharge (which is the primary
objective of this report) must therefore consider these effects, which change over time
and have components that are not measured directly or not with sufficient density in
time and space (e.g., recharge in urban areas, flow from the Coastal Aquifer to the
sea).
The calculations are carried out by a variety of techniques, ranging from
relatively simple water balances using "cell models", to more sophisticated two and
three-dimensional numerical models. The results presented in this report are the best
results obtained to-date based on geo-hydrological expertise aided by the models.
The following recurring terms are used:
Aquifer and Basin: these terms are sometimes used interchangeably for
groundwater, although strictly speaking the "basin" is a domain of flow while
an "aquifer" is the layer in which flow takes place (and a basin may therefore
have several aquifers or sub-aquifers). The reason is that in hydrological
parlance it is common to use "aquifer" for "basin". For example, the "Coastal
Aquifer" is a groundwater basin flowing towards the Mediterranean Sea, with
several sub-aquifers.
Recharge from rain: The volume of rain water that enters a particular
basin/aquifer from rainfall. The volume is either calculated directly, as in the
case of Lake Kinneret (water-level measurements of the lake itself), or
indirectly through the use of hydrologic balance equations and models.
Lateral inflows and outflows: The volume of water that flows from one
basin/aquifer to another or to the adjacent water body. For example: into the
Coastal Aquifer there is inflow of brackish water from the adjacent Eocene
aquitard, inflow of seawater from the adjacent Mediterranean Sea, and
outflow of freshwater to the Mediterranean Sea.
Total recharge: The recharge from rain plus the net of lateral inflows minus
outflows. The current report deals with natural recharge only.
Water quality in the sources is a matter of concern. This report deals only with what
is termed "fresh water", i.e., water that is suitable for supply to the urban sector with
minimal/modest/conventional treatment. Within this range of qualities we
differentiate between sources with chloride concentration below and above 400
mg/liter which is the maximum level for drinking water according to the Israeli
Ministry of Health. Within the Coastal Aquifer, the area around Shafdan (Israel’s
largest plant for wastewater treatment and groundwater recharge) and other locally
affected areas are defined as having recharge from rain into areas with chloride
concentrations above 400 mg/liter.
3. Surface Water Flow in the Western and Eastern Basins
Israel is located between the northern latitudes of 29 and 33 and includes both desert
and Mediterranean climates, the former affecting more than half of the country.
Annual rainfall in Israel ranges from approximately 1000 millimeters (mm) in the
northern mountains (upper Kinneret and western Galilee), to 500-600 mm in the
Yarkon-Taninim basin, the central mountains and the Coastal basin. In the southern
Negev and Arava regions the annual rainfall is usually below 50 mm (Figure 2). The
majority of rainfall is lost to evapo-transpiration (approximately 70% according to
most models), while approximately 25% infiltrates to groundwater and 5% flows as
surface water.
The surface water flow system in Israel is divided into two parts: western and eastern.
The western system drains towards the Mediterranean Sea while the eastern system
drains towards the Jordan Rift, the Dead Sea and the Red Sea (Figure 3). A third flow
system, the Kinneret Basin, is dealt with as a separate basin. The stream channels that
drain to the east account for a small percentage (~10%) of the overall surface water
flow while the other ~90% flows in the western drainage system. Surface water can
be divided into base flow (springs discharging to stream channels) and floods. The
overall discharge volumes calculated from measurements integrate both of these flow
types.
Table 1 shows the annual discharge of surface flows in the western system for the
period 1987-2010 and the calculated runoff-precipitation coefficients. The runoff is
measured at gauging stations located relatively close to the point of discharge to the
sea. The runoff-precipitation coefficient is the ratio between the volume of surface
water flow generated from rain that fell on a particular drainage basin, to the volume
of rain itself. The volumes shown do not include an additional approximately 40 mcm
of surface water from non-gauged areas.
Based on regression analyses of the rainfall-surface flow relationship in the urbanized
area near the coast, it is estimated that approximately ~13% of the area in the western
system is not monitored with gauging stations.
Figure 2. Average Annual Rainfall and Evaporation across the studied area.
Kinneret
Basin
Western
Drainage
Eastern
Drainage
Figure 3. The Western, Eastern and Kinneret Drainage Areas.
Table 1. Annual Measured Flood Volumes and Runoff/Precipitation Coefficients
for the Western Drainage Area.
Flood
Hydrologic Year
Volume
(mcm)
Runoff / Precipitation
Coefficient (%)
1986/87
168
3.7
1987/88
200
4.4
1988/89
45
1.6
1989/90
74
2.4
1990/91
70
2.5
1991/92
967
15.6
1992/93
247
8.6
1993/94
38
2.7
1994/95
322
9.2
1995/96
78
3.7
1996/97
140
4.6
1997/98
84
3.7
1998/99
20
3.1
1999/00
111
4.8
2000/01
39
2.2
2001/02
154
4.6
2002/03
346
7.5
2003/04
116
5.6
2004/05
147
3.0
2005/06
74
2.8
2006/07
60
2.5
2007/08
59
1.8
2008/09
72
3.6
2009/10
118
3.9
Average
156
4.5
Median
98
3.7
Table 2 shows the average and median volumes of surface water flow for the two
periods: 1987-2010 and 1993-2010 (including the additional estimated 40 mcm for
non-gauged area). The average volume for the entire western basin ranges between
178 and 210 mcm/yr, depending upon the time period considered. The estimated
average annual volume of surface flow in the eastern flow system is ~25 mcm/yr.
Table 2: Average and Median Flood Volumes in the Western Drainage Area
(includes 40 mcm/yr for non-gauged areas).
Period
Flood Volumes (mcm)
Average:0891 -0202
002
Median:0891 -0202
051
Average:0881 -0202
019
Median:0881 -0202
019
4. Summary Tables of Recharge into the Sources
Tables 3-7 present the summary of all subsequent sections. The tables show the
estimated annual recharge from rain for each basin/aquifer, including the estimates of
annual total recharge for areas with chloride concentrations above and below 400 mg/l
for each defined time-period.
Table 3. Average Annual Recharge into the Major Hydrological Basins for the Period 1973-1992.
1973-1992
Recharge from Rainfall (1)
<400 mg/l Cl >400 mg/l Cl
148
104
(3)
369
211
151
24
6
(8)
119
20
(9)
27
15
(10)
4
28
(12)
605
18
(14)
18
26
Hydrological Basin
Coastal
Western Mountain
Eastern Mountain (7)
North Eastern Mountain (7)
Lower Galilee (7)
Western Galilee
Carmel
Negev
Kinneret (7)
Gaza
1658
1676
Total without Gaza
Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
191
217
Total
252
369
211
151
30
139
42
32
623
44
1849
1893
Natural
Natural Recharge
Discharge(16)
Lateral Recharge/Discharge
Total Recharge
<400 mg/l Cl
>400 mg/l Cl
Total <400 mg/l Cl >400 mg/l Cl Total Springs (2)
-20
(4)
43
(5) 23
128
147
275
0
369
369
45
211
211
131
151
151
94
24
6
30
12
-10
(4)
-5
(4) -15
109
15
124
36
-5
(11) -5
27
10
37
5
-4
(13) -4
4
24
28
-17
(14) -17
605
605
-5
(4)
31
(15) 26
13
57
70
-30
-35
12
43
-18
8
1628
1641
rainfall turns to surface water/groundwater
data reconstructed: Western Galilee prior 1987; Carmel prior 1995; Eastern Mountain and Noth Eastern Mountain since 2000
comprised of 78 MCM local groundwater; 14MCM - Shafdan Plant; 12 MCM - Highly contaminated zones
discharge to the sea
Inflow from the nearby Eocene - 37 MCM and 6 MCM from the sea
supposed additional recharge from adjacent aquifers/phreatic area
data available for Kinneret; Eastern Mountain, North Eastern Mountain and Lower Galilee since 1976
mainly in the Yavniel Valley
Including 13 MCM - Naaman; 5 MCM - Kurdani; 1 MCM -Yizreel Valley, 1 MCM Galilee Coast
Including 7 MCM Carmel Coast and 8 MCM Carmel Mt.
discharge to the sea - 4MCM and to Yizreel Valley - 1 MCM
12 MCM Alluvial aquifers; 12.5 MCM Judea Gr. and 3.4 MCM Kurnub Gr. Aquifers, evaluated
difference between transboundary flow
saline water carrier
downward flow from the adjacent Coastal aquifer 24 MCM and sea water inrtusion 7 MCM
part of total Recharge
202
259
1830
1900
323
323
Table 4. Average Annual Recharge into the Major Hydrological Basins for the Period 1993-2009.
1993-2009
Recharge from Rainfall (1)
<400 mg/l Cl >400 mg/l Cl
136
96
(3)
333
174
134
20
6
(8)
112
20
(9)
25
15
(10)
4
28
(12)
526
14
(14)
17
23
Hydrological Basin
Coastal
Western Mountain
Eastern Mountain
North Eastern Mountain
Lower Galilee
Western Galilee
Carmel
Negev
Kinneret
Gaza
1464
1481
Total without Gaza
Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
179
202
56
56
Total
232
333
174
134
26
132
40
32
540
40
1643
1683
Natural
Natural Recharge
Discharge(16)
Lateral Recharge/Discharge
Total Recharge
<400 mg/l Cl
>400 mg/l Cl
Total <400 mg/l Cl >400 mg/l Cl Total Springs (2)
-20
(4)
43
(5) 23
116
139
255
0
333
333
45
174
174
130
134
134
93
20
6
26
12
-10
(4)
-5
(4) -15
102
15
117
41
-5
(11) -5
25
10
35
4
-1
(13) -1
4
27
31
-15
(14) -15
526
526
45
(15) 45
17
68
85
-30
-30
8
8
17
62
47
62
-13
32
1434
1451
rainfall turns to surface water/groundwater
data reconstructed: Western Galilee prior 1987; Carmel prior 1995; Eastern Mountain and Noth Eastern Mountain since 2000
comprised of 72 MCM local groundwater; 14 MCM - Shafdan Plant; 11 MCM - Highly contaminated zones
discharge to the sea
Inflow from the nearby Eocene - 37 MCM and 6 MCM from the sea
supposed additional recharge from adjacent aquifers/phreatic area
mainly in the Yavniel Valley
Including 13 MCM - Naaman; 5 MCM - Kurdani; 1 MCM -Yizreel Valley, 1 MCM Galilee Coast
Including 7 MCM Carmel Coast and 8 MCM Carmel Mt.
discharge to the sea - 4MCM and to Yizreel Valley - 1 MCM
12 MCM Alluvial aquifers; 12.5 MCM Judea Gr. and 3.4 MCM Kurnub Gr. Aquifers, evaluated
difference between transboundary flow
saline water carrier
downward flow from the adjacent Coastal aquifer 30 MCM and sea water intrusion 15 MCM
part of total Recharge
197
265
1631
1716
325
325
Table 5. Average Annual Recharge into the Major Hydrological Basins for the Combined Period 1973-2009.
1973-2009
Recharge from Rainfall (1)
<400 mg/l Cl >400 mg/l Cl
143
100
(3)
352
192
142
22
6
(8)
116
20
(9)
26
15
(10)
4
28
(12)
565
16
(14)
18
24
Hydrological Basin
Coastal
Western Mountain
Eastern Mountain (7)
North Eastern Mountain (7)
Lower Galilee (7)
Western Galilee
Carmel
Negev
Kinneret (7)
Gaza
Total
243
352
192
142
28
136
41
32
581
42
Natural
Natural Recharge
Discharge(16)
Lateral Recharge/Discharge
Total Recharge
<400 mg/l Cl
>400 mg/l Cl
Total <400 mg/l Cl >400 mg/l Cl Total Springs (2)
-20
(4)
43
(5) 23
123
143
266
0
352
352
43
192
192
130
142
142
94
22
6
28
12
-10
(4)
-5
(4) -15
106
15
121
38
-5
(11) -5
26
10
36
5
-2
(13) -2
4
26
30
-15
(14) -15
565
565
-3
38
(15) 35
15
62
77
Total without Gaza
1562
185
1747
-30
16
-14
1532
200
1732
322
Total with Gaza
1580
209
1789
-33
54
21
1547
262
1809
322
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
rainfall turns to surface water/groundwater
data reconstructed: Western Galilee prior 1987; Carmel prior 1995; Eastern Mountain and Noth Eastern Mountain since 2000
comprised of 75 MCM local groundwater; 14 MCM - Shafdan Plant; 11 MCM - Highly contaminated zones
discharge to the sea
Inflow from the nearby Eocene - 37 MCM and 6 MCM from the sea
supposed additional recharge from adjacent aquifers/phreatic area
data available for Kinneret; Eastern Mountain, North Eastern Mountain and Lower Galilee since 1976
mainly in the Yavniel Valley
Including 13 MCM - Naaman; 5 MCM - Kurdani; 1 MCM -Yizreel Valley, 1 MCM Galilee Coast
Including 7 MCM Carmel Coast and 8 MCM Carmel Mt.
discharge to the sea - 4MCM and to Yizreel Valley - 1 MCM
12 MCM Alluvial aquifers; 12.5 MCM Judea Gr. and 3.4 MCM Kurnub Gr. aquifers, evaluated
difference between transboundary flow
saline water carrier
downward flow from the adjacent Coastal aquifer 27 MCM and sea water intrusion 11 MCM
part of total Recharge
Table 6. Annual Recharge from Rainfall for the Major Basins with Statistical Parameters for time periods:
1973-1992, 1993-2009 and 1973-2009.
Year
Hydro. Year
Coastal
Western
Mountain
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
1970/1971
1971/1972
1972/1973
1973/1974
1974/1975
1975/1976
1976/1977
1977/1978
1978/1979
1979/1980
1980/1981
1981/1982
1982/1983
1983/1984
1984/1985
1985/1986
1986/1987
1987/1988
1988/1989
1989/1990
1990/1991
1991/1992
1992/1993
1993/1994
1994/1995
1995/1996
1996/1997
1997/1998
1998/1999
1999/2000
2000/2001
2001/2002
2002/2003
2003/2004
2004/2005
2005/2006
2006/2007
2007/2008
2008/2009
250
267
195
329
280
186
266
231
184
300
239
193
316
155
170
183
313
298
218
274
208
504
298
178
350
244
255
233
116
221
214
276
324
202
216
233
219
189
178
392
408
305
528
366
310
400
343
229
436
378
303
473
239
247
254
416
426
306
340
295
780
425
244
424
337
399
326
146
352
258
419
512
262
346
362
299
237
309
175
212
183
178
240
212
180
305
147
175
135
243
244
187
191
163
409
251
154
207
194
213
164
100
136
167
208
244
134
204
159
177
111
131
135
170
103
53
240
131
99
260
115
81
94
163
194
112
132
79
411
163
81
187
130
156
170
40
120
84
149
260
123
132
137
127
89
128
(1973-1992)
(1993-2009)
(1973-2009)
(1973-1991)
(1973-1992)
(1993-2009)
(1973-2009)
(1973-1992)
(1993-2009)
(1973-2009)
252
232
243
56
81
57
71
235
221
231
369
333
352
83
126
89
111
342
337
340
211
174
192
43
66
44
58
187
167
182
151
134
142
58
87
49
70
131
130
130
Average
Average
Average
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Median
Median
Median
Eastern
Mountain
North Eastern
Mountain
Lower Western
Galilee Galilee
Carmel
Negev Kinneret
Gaza
28
33
28
19
44
34
17
34
24
23
23
31
33
21
34
23
58
30
23
34
26
29
30
16
24
20
30
43
24
23
23
28
17
27
162
121
89
160
126
136
163
151
80
180
166
105
156
128
139
100
175
174
95
124
95
232
144
103
161
143
144
165
95
116
96
154
199
148
115
117
123
92
129
49
42
28
41
47
41
54
42
30
57
37
23
51
33
29
33
44
60
31
44
28
81
44
25
48
41
34
48
27
40
37
53
54
50
35
42
36
30
35
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
586
701
673
269
846
874
442
844
535
535
376
806
831
359
321
258
1332
806
468
701
587
567
667
326
371
249
453
1140
822
523
448
404
274
377
41
44
36
57
43
28
38
31
32
52
27
37
66
24
28
28
66
54
46
49
46
90
57
30
59
47
35
31
19
35
51
50
68
32
34
30
43
21
33
30
26
28
7
10
7
9
28
26
27
139
132
136
32
38
29
34
138
129
136
42
40
41
11
14
9
12
41
40
41
32
32
32
0
0
0
0
32
32
32
623
540
581
223
283
231
258
586
468
535
44
40
42
13
17
14
15
41
35
37
Total without
Gaza
Total with Gaza
1629
2030
1786
1074
2375
2103
1396
2471
1409
1431
1230
2223
2291
1362
1492
1181
3839
2193
1308
2144
1735
1830
1833
898
1411
1156
1774
2808
1798
1628
1552
1444
1070
1344
1656
2068
1817
1106
2427
2130
1432
2537
1433
1459
1258
2289
2345
1408
1542
1227
3929
2249
1338
2203
1782
1865
1864
917
1446
1208
1823
2875
1830
1662
1582
1487
1091
1377
1848
1643
1748
465
684
465
584
1719
1551
1654
1892
1682
1790
473
698
475
597
1760
1586
1690
Table 7. Annual Total Recharge into areas with Chloride Concentration less than 400 mg/l for the Major Basins with Statistical
Parameters for time periods: 1973-1992, 1993-2009 and 1973-2009.
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Average
Average
Average
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
Median
Median
Median
Hydro. Year Coastal
Western
Mountain
Eastern
Mountain
North Eastern
Mountain
Lower
Galilee
Western
Galilee
Carmel
Negev
34
27
13
26
32
26
39
27
15
42
22
8
36
18
14
18
29
45
16
29
13
66
29
10
33
26
19
33
12
25
22
38
39
35
20
27
21
15
20
27
25
26
11
14
9
12
26
25
26
1970/1971
1971/1972
1972/1973
1973/1974
1974/1975
1975/1976
1976/1977
1977/1978
1978/1979
1979/1980
1980/1981
1981/1982
1982/1983
1983/1984
1984/1985
1985/1986
1986/1987
1987/1988
1988/1989
1989/1990
1990/1991
1991/1992
1992/1993
1993/1994
1994/1995
1995/1996
1996/1997
1997/1998
1998/1999
1999/2000
2000/2001
2001/2002
2002/2003
2003/2004
2004/2005
2005/2006
2006/2007
2007/2008
2008/2009
124
136
93
169
142
93
141
115
90
158
123
90
166
72
78
92
163
157
107
141
101
272
148
84
190
120
130
117
51
113
107
144
167
103
108
115
109
88
85
392
408
305
528
366
310
400
343
229
436
378
303
473
239
247
254
416
426
306
340
295
780
425
244
424
337
399
326
146
352
258
419
512
262
346
362
299
237
309
175
212
183
178
240
212
180
305
147
175
135
243
244
187
191
163
409
251
154
207
194
213
164
100
136
167
208
244
134
204
159
177
111
131
135
170
103
53
240
131
99
260
115
81
94
163
194
112
132
79
411
163
81
187
130
156
170
40
120
84
149
260
123
132
137
127
89
128
22
27
22
13
38
28
11
28
18
17
17
25
27
15
28
17
52
24
17
28
20
23
24
10
18
14
24
37
18
17
17
22
11
21
132
91
59
130
96
106
133
121
50
150
136
75
126
98
109
70
145
144
65
94
65
202
114
73
131
113
114
135
65
86
66
124
169
118
85
87
93
62
99
(1973-1992)
(1993-2009)
(1973-2009)
(1973-1991)
(1973-1992)
(1993-2009)
(1973-2009)
(1973-1992)
(1993-2009)
(1973-2009)
128
116
123
33
46
33
41
119
113
115
369
333
352
83
126
89
111
342
337
340
211
174
192
43
66
44
58
187
167
182
151
134
142
58
87
49
70
131
130
130
24
20
22
7
10
7
9
22
20
21
109
102
106
32
38
29
34
108
99
106
Total without
Gaza
Total with Gaza
563
679
655
249
827
857
432
825
517
514
358
786
820
342
302
238
1322
794
454
680
569
548
651
309
355
239
441
1127
810
508
429
390
262
371
13
14
10
19
12
7
12
8
9
16
7
10
23
5
7
6
23
18
14
16
14
33
23
14
25
20
14
13
8
15
21
22
31
13
14
13
18
9
14
1435
1804
1573
881
2135
1890
1203
2223
1229
1239
1042
1974
2060
1154
1261
975
3518
1952
1121
1884
1513
1607
1623
736
1207
960
1551
2559
1608
1426
1336
1241
878
1167
1441
1816
1581
890
2151
1897
1213
2246
1234
1246
1048
1997
2077
1169
1277
989
3551
1976
1134
1909
1533
1621
1636
744
1222
981
1573
2590
1622
1440
1348
1259
887
1181
605
526
565
223
284
230
258
563
454
515
13
17
15
6
7
6
7
12
14
14
1627
1433
1533
447
652
443
557
1501
1349
1439
1640
1450
1548
450
658
448
562
1513
1364
1453
Kinneret
Gaza
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
0
0
0
0
4
4
4
5. Individual Basins
5.1 Lake Kinneret Watershed
The Kinneret basin stretches from the Hermon Mountain Range in the north to the
southern shore of Lake Kinneret in the south. The western border is the hydrologic
water divide in the Galilee Hills and into Lebanon while the eastern border is on the
Golan Heights and the border with Syria (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Regional Map of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Lake Kinneret
Watershed including the upper catchments of the Jordan River and the direct
watersheds (east and west).
The Kinneret basin has its main water source in the ~1,700 km2 upper catchment of
the Jordan River (UCJR) which includes ~920 km2 in Israel and ~780 km2 in Syria
and Lebanon. The basin also includes a number of smaller sub-basins/aquifers which,
like the UCJR, all have their final discharge into Lake Kinneret, the most important
surface water resource in Israel. The area of the smaller sub-basins is ~965 km2, 577
km2 of which are in the southern part of the Golan Height to the east of the lake, and
the other 388 km2 are in the Eastern Galilee Mountains to the west of the lake.
The Hermon Mountain range in the northern part of the UCJR has an elevation of
1,200–2,800 meters and is the wettest area in the basin with an average annual
precipitation between 1200–1500 mm. The Hermon range feeds the three major
tributaries of the Jordan River: 1) Dan with average annual flow of ~250 mcm/yr, 2)
Hermon (also known as Banias) with ~110 mcm/yr and 3) Snir (also known as
Hazbani) with ~115 mcm/yr.
The hydrogeological units making up the various aquifers are of Jurassic and Upper
Cretaceous age (mainly carbonate limestone and dolomite), Eocene (mainly chalk and
limestone) and Quaternary age (basalt and alluvium).
The average annual recharge from rain to the entire Kinneret basin has dropped from
approximately 623 mcm/yr during the period 1976-1992 to approximately 540
mcm/yr during the period 1993-2009. Included is approximately 16 mcm/yr of saline
spring water with chloride concentrations above 400 mg/l (Tables 3-4). The high
salinity water is discharged at the Tabcha Springs and diverted away from Lake
Kinneret to prevent accumulation of salts within the lake.
For the entire period 1976-2009, the average recharge from rain to the Kinneret Basin
is 581 mcm (Table 5). On average, approximately 434 mcm/yr enters from the Jordan
River, 65 mcm/yr comes from direct rainfall, 75 mcm/yr flows from the subbasins/aquifers and artificial diversion, and 55 mcm/yr comes from springs flowing
directly into the lake.
An average of 230 mcm/yr evaporates so that the average
volume of available water is 399 mcm/yr. An additional 182 mcm/yr are used in the
upstream areas of the Basin so the average total recharge is 581 mcm (Figure 5). From
this, approximately 16 mcm/yr of high salinity water is diverted so that the average
total recharge for the period 1976-2009 is 565 mcm/yr (Table 5). Figure 6 shows the
annual recharge from rain to the Kinneret Basin in graphic form.
Inflow:





Consumption in the
upstream watershed
Outflow:
Direct rainfall on the lake:
65 mcm
Jordan River: 434 mcm
(Hydrometric station at the
obstacle bridge)
Direct watershed runoff :
70 mcm
Springs (Eastern Galilee) :
55 mcm
Other (Kinneret 7) : 5 mcm


Private consumption: 98 mcm
Pumping in the watershed (Golan
fields, Einan, Eastern Galilee):
49 mcm
 Saline water carrier diversion:
15 mcm
 Assumed consumption from the
Snir basin (in Lebanon): 20 mcm
Evaporation from
the lake :230 mcm
(“Mekorot”)
Total inflow to Lake: 629 mcm
Total consumption in the upstream
watershed: 182 mcm
Net available water in the lake
(flow minus evaporation) = 399 mcm
(in
Recharge from Rain (Available Water+Total consumption upstream):
Water Authority
581 mcm
Figure 5. Water Balance in the Kinneret Basin, average values for the period
1976-2009. Figures are for the total recharge, including areas with more than
400 mg/liter chloride.
Total Recharge from Rainfall
Average
623
540
581
1976-1992
1993-2009
1976-2009
Recharge from Rainfall less than 400 mg/l chloride
Median
586
468
535
1400
1200
mcm
1000
800
600
400
200
08
20
06
20
04
20
02
20
00
20
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
19
88
19
86
19
84
19
82
19
80
19
78
19
19
76
0
Figure 6. Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Kinneret Basin. Averages and
medians for different time periods apply to the total recharge (mcm) from
rainfall.
Table 8 displays the annual water balance in the Kinneret Basin considering the
consumption upstream. A decreasing trend in the total recharge to the basin is evident
as can be seen in Table 9. Figures 7 and 8 display the average annual amount of water
that reaches the Lake itself, and not the watershed recharge. Figure 7 shows the
average available water at Lake Kinneret for the periods 1950-1980, 1980-2010 and
the predicted values for the period 2010-2030 based on Rimmer et al., 2011. It can be
seen in both Figures 7-8 that the volume of water in Lake Kinneret has decreased
significantly throughout the years.
Similarly, a significant decreasing trend in
precipitation (15-20%) and spring flow was reported for the Kinneret basin for the
period 1975-2008 (Givati and Rosenfeld, 2007 and Givati and Rosenfeld, 2011).
According to a an ensemble of regional climate models, the available water in Lake
Kinneret during the period 2015-2034 will be approximately 15% less than the period
1979-2007 (Table 10), (Rimmer et al., 2011; Samuels et al., 2011; Givati and
Rosenfeld, 2011). More climate simulations for longer periods (2030-2060), (Figure
9) also show a decrease in precipitation in the northern parts of the country, together
with a stable trend in the center (Krichak, et al., 2009; Krichak et al., 2011).
In addition, salinity of the basin is increasing as the overall recharge decreases
(precipitation less than averge) with the average salinity concentration over the last 3
years being approximately 280 mg/l chloride.
Table 8: Water Balance in the Kinneret Watershed (total recharge, including
areas with chloride concentrations above 400 mg/liter).
Hydrological year
Total consumption in the
Net available water in Recharge from Rain to
upstream watershed (mcm) Lake Kinneret (mcm)
the watershed (mcm)
1975/76
170
416
586
1976/77
167
534
701
1977/78
163
510
673
1978/79
159
110
269
1979/80
134
712
846
1980/81
152
722
874
1981/82
168
274
442
1982/83
226
617
844
1983/84
172
364
535
1984/85
167
368
534
1985/86
180
196
376
1986/87
169
637
806
1987/88
178
653
831
1988/89
172
187
359
1989/90
147
174
321
1990/91
142
116
258
1991/92
156
1176
1332
1992/93
172
635
806
1993/94
002
089
869
1994/95
006
815
120
1995/96
012
159
591
1996/97
018
109
561
1997/98
008
880
661
1998/99
001
028
106
1999/00
099
098
110
2000/01
092
68
088
2001/02
096
061
851
2002/03
081
880
0082
2003/04
088
609
900
2004/05
080
110
501
2005/06
080
051
889
2006/07
091
002
828
2007/08
080
90
018
2008/09
026
016
377
Table 9: Statistics of the Water Balance for the Kinneret Watershed at different
periods (mcm/yr; total recharge, including areas with chloride concentrations
above 400 mg/liter).
Available Water in Total Consumption
Period
Total Recharge to
Lake Kinneret
from the Upstream
Entire Watershed
(mcm)
Watershed
(mcm)
(mcm)
Average:0816 -0880
870
153
605
Median:0816 -0880
463
023
563
Average:0816 -0228
395
096
565
Median:0816 -0228
388
096
515
Average:0881 -0228
102
020
526
Median:0881 -0228
212
086
854
600
Actual available water [mcm]
505
Predicted available water [mcm]
500
385
400
340
300
200
100
0
-
-
-
Figure 7. Annual Average of Actual and Predicted Available Water in Lake
Kinneret.
1500
Available water in lake Kinneret [mcm]
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Figure 8. Decreasing Trend of Available Water in Lake Kinneret.
Table 10. Summary of the Climate, Hydrological, Evaporation and Salinity
Concentration Models and the Effect on Water Availability in Lake Kinneret.
1979–2007 1979–2007
2015-2034
Predicted
Predicted
Observed
Modeled
Modeled
Change
Change [%]
Average Precipitation [mm]
835
832
802
-30
-4%
Std. Precipitation [mm]
271
263
228
-35
-13%
Average Incoming water [mcm]
663
664
620
-44
-7%
Std. Incoming water [mcm]
273
256
246
-10
-4%
Average Evaporation [mcm]
230
238
249
11
5%
Average Available water [mcm]
408
401
345
-56
-14%
Std. Available water [mcm]
273
272
250
-22
-8%
233
234
277
43
18%
Period
Average Cl Concentration
in the lake (mg/l]
Figure 9. Simulated Trends of Mean Seasonal Precipitation (%) for the Period
2030 - 2060.
5.2 Western Galilee Basin
The Western Galilee Basin extends from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the
water divide in the east, and from the Yizrael Valley in the south to the IsraelLebanon border in the north (Figure 10). The Western Galilee Basin includes three
major aquifers: 1). the Kurdani Formation of plio-Pleistocene age consisting mainly
of sandy limestone and calcareous sandstone with intercalations of clay layers, 2). the
Judea Group of Cenomanian-Turonian age consisting mainly of carbonate limestone
and dolomite with lesser amounts of chalk and 3). the Eocene Avdat Group (aquitard)
consisting mainly of chalk and chalky limestone (Figure 11). The Judea Group
outcrops are mainly in the higher elevations to the east while the Pleistocene rocks are
exposed mainly in the western part of the basin. The Eocene formation is exposed in
the Shfaram syncline in the southern part of the basin. The natural drainage of the
basin is to the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 12), the Yizrael Valley and springs. The
average discharge of the springs for the period 1973-2009 is 38 mcm/yr.
Figure 10. The Western Galilee Basin. Composed of three major aquifers:
Cretaceous Mountain aquifer, Eocene Chalk aquifer and Plio-Pleistocene
Coastal aquifer.
Figure 11. Hydro-Stratigraphic Column for Northern Israel.
Figure 12. Water Level Map and Flow Direction in the Western Galilee Basin.
The water quality in the Judea aquifer is very good while the water quality in the plioPleistocene formation suffers from rising concentrations of chloride and nitrate over
the last two decades. Similar to the Coastal Basin, the coastal section of the Western
Galilee Basin is sensitive to contaminants originating on the surface and also to
salinization from the Mediterranean Sea.
Recharge calculations for the basin are done by using a calibrated cell model
developed by the Israel Hydrologic Service (Bachmat, 1981; Bachmat and Ben Zvi,
1983; see appendix) which has rainfall data and groundwater level measurements as
input. The results are in close agreement to other published models for the basin. The
average total annual recharge to the basin during the period 1973-1992 is estimated to
be 124 mcm/yr (Table 3) whereas during the period 1993-2009 the estimate is 117
mcm/yr (Table 4). Included in these estimates are approximately 15 mcm/yr of water
with salinity higher than 400 mg/l chloride. The annual discharge of the basin to the
Mediterranean Sea and the Yizrael Valley is approximately 15 mcm (10 mcm/yr fresh
water and 5 mcm/yr high salinity water). The average annual natural recharge for the
western Galilee Basin is presented in Tables 3-5 for the different time periods (19731992, 1993-2009 and 1973-2009). Tables 6 and 7 present the annual recharge from
rainfall and the annual total recharge with chloride concentration less than 400 mg/l,
accordingly and summarize the average and the median recharge estimates for the
different time periods. Figure 13 shows the annual recharge from rain to the Western
Galilee Basin in graphic form.
Average
Median
Total Recharge from Rainfall
1973-1992
139
138
Recharge from Rainfall less than 400 mg/l chloride
1993-2009
132
129
1973-2009
136
136
250
200
mcm
150
100
50
09
20
05
03
01
07
20
20
20
20
97
95
99
19
19
19
91
89
93
19
19
19
85
83
87
19
19
19
81
19
77
75
79
19
19
19
73
19
19
71
0
Figure 13. Annual Recharge from Rainfall to the Western Galilee Basin. Averages and medians
for different time periods apply to the total recharge (mcm) from rainfall.
5.3
Carmel Basin
The Carmel Basin is an isolated tectonic structure (Figure 14) bounded on the north
by the Carmel (Yagur) fault which has caused vertical displacement of up to 1000
meters.
The southeast border of the Carmel block is bounded by the Menashe
syncline and the western border is the Mediterranean Sea. The basin consists of the
Judea Group which is limestone and dolomite of Cenomanian-Turonian age, and the
coastal Kurkar Group of Quaternary age which overlies the Judea Group near the
coast. A water divide separates the eastward drainage to the Yizrael Valley and the
westward drainage to the Mediterranean Sea. The Yagur fault apparently limits the
flow of groundwater eastward into the thick sequence of sediments in the Yizrael
Valley. On the west side, water from the limestone aquifer drains into the sandstone
aquifer and from there the flow is to the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 15).
Figure 14. Structural Map (top of Judea Group) of the Carmel Basin
(after Segev and Sass, 2009).
Figure 15. Groundwater Contour Map of the Carmel Basin.
The average annual discharge of the springs for the period 1973-2009 in the Carmel
Basin is approximately 5 mcm.
The water quality in the Kurkar Group is poor (higher than 900 mg/Cl in some places)
and therefore various desalination installations have been set up over the years
(Ma`agan-Michael, Atlit, Ma`ayan-Zevi) that treat more than 12 mcm/yr. In the Judea
Group the water quality is good (at least until it flows laterally into the overlying
Kurkar Group where it becomes brackish). It is estimated that approximately 15
mcm/yr of the recharge from rainfall has chloride concentrations above 400 mg/l.
Recharge calculations for the basin are done by a calibrated cell model developed by
the Israel Hydrologic Service (Bachmat, 1981; Bachmat and Ben Zvi, 1983; see
appendix) which has rainfall data and groundwater level measurements as input. The
results are in close agreement to other published models for the basin. The average
annual total recharge to the Carmel Basin during the period 1973-1992 is
approximately 37 mcm/yr whereas during the later period 1993-2009 the total
recharge decreased to approximately 35 mcm/year. The average annual discharge of
the basin to the Mediterranean Sea and the Yizrael Valley is approximately 5 mcm, all
with a chloride concentration higher than 400 mg/l. The average natural recharge for
the Carmel Basin is presented in Tables 3-5 for the different time periods (1973-1992,
1993-2009 and 1973-2009). Tables 6 and 7 present the annual recharge from rainfall
(chloride above and below 400 mg/l) and summarize the average and the median
recharge estimates for the different time periods.
Figure 16 shows the annual
recharge from rain to the Carmel Basin in graphic form.
Total Recharge from Rainfall
Recharge from Rainfall less than 400 mg/l chloride
Average
Median
1973-1992
42
41
1993-2009
40
40
1973-2009
41
41
90
80
70
mcm
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 16. Annual total recharge from rainfall to the Carmel Basin. Shows
recharge from rainfall and chloride concentration below 400 mg/liter. Averages
and medians for different time periods apply to the total recharge (mcm) from
rainfall.
5.4
Coastal Basin
The Coastal Basin (also referred to as the Coastal Aquifer) stretches from the Carmel
Range in the north to the Sinai Peninsula in the south, and from the Judea and Samaria
foothills in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west (Figure 17).
The
southernmost part of the basin (Sinai) as well as the Gaza Strip, are not controlled by
Israel.
A cross-section of the basin (Figure 18) reveals a series of sediments with a thickness
of up to 200 meters in the west which pinch-out to the east. The sediments are of
Pleistocene age and consist mainly of calcareous sandstone and conglomerates interlayered with silt and clay units which divide the overall basin into distinct subaquifers (Kurkar Group). The sub-aquifers exist only in the western part of the basin
up to a distance of approximately 4 km from the coast (eastward). The basin is
underlain in most areas by a very low permeability, Neogene rock formation (Saqiye
Group). The basin has been divided into four parts: Northern, Central, Southern and
the Gaza Strip with the groundwater flow direction in all its parts generally
perpendicular to the sea shore line (towards the Sea) but with many localized
groundwater table depressions caused by excessive pumping. In the area of the Hefer
Valley in the north, and between the cities of Rehovot and Nir-Am in the south, the
eastern margin of the Coastal Basin is in direct contact with the Eocene Avedat Group
(aquiclude).
In these areas, relatively high salinity groundwater flows from the
Avedat Group into the Coastal Aquifer. Along its western margins, the Coastal Basin
is in direct contact with sea water where a delicate balance exists between sea water
intrusion to the basin, and outflow of freshwater to the sea, depending upon the
pumping configuration and resulting water table. Another significant element of the
total recharge to the basin, along with direct rainfall and infiltration flood water, is the
designed-infiltration of treated waste-water, percolation from agricultural and
domestic sources, and industrial discharges which are often contaminated. The latter
sources have affected mainly the uppermost sub-aquifer.
Recharge calculations for the Israeli part of the basin are carried out with a calibrated
cell model developed by the Israel Hydrologic Service (Bachmat, 1981; Bachmat and
Ben Zvi, 1983; Bachmat et al., 2003, see appendix) which has rainfall data and
groundwater level measurements as input. The results are in close agreement to
nearly all other published models for the basin. The estimated recharge of the Gaza
Strip portion of the basin is calculated using a balance model developed by Melloul
and Bachmat (1975) with estimates in close agreement to other published models
(Mercalf and Eddy, 2000; Moe et al, 2001; Yaqoubi, 2007) (Table 11).
Carmel
Range
Samaria
Judea
Figure 17. Location map of the Coastal Basin.
Figure 18. Typical Hydrogeological Section of the Coastal Aquifer.
Table 11. Summary of Water Balance Estimations (mcm/year) for the Coastal
Aquifer in the Gaza Strip.
Inflow
Year
Rain
From
Israel
Return
Flow
1975
40
24
1990
49
1992
Outflow
Source
Pumping
Outflow
to Sea
23
110
21
-44
Melloul & Bachmat, 1975
24
20
80
21
-8
Melloul & Collin, 1994
86
24
16
69
21
+36
Melloul & Collin, 1994
1998
35
36
52
145
9
-31
Moe, H., et al., 2001
2000
40-45
18-30
44-54
142-145
0
-38- -11
60
30
From
Egypt
In-Out
2-5
153
-60
Mercalf & Eddy, 2000
Yaqoubi, 2007
5.4.1 The Coastal Basin within Israel
Figure 19 shows the annual natural recharge from rainfall and the average and median
recharge estimates for different periods. The total recharge from rain to the basin has
decreased from approximately 252 mcm/yr during the period 1973-1992, to
approximately 232 mcm/yr during the period 1993-2009 (Tables 3-4). The recharge
from rainfall estimates include a significant element of high salinity groundwater
(approximately 100 mcm/yr with chloride higher than 400 mg/l). This is broken
down between locally high salinity groundwater (75 mcm/yr), influences from
infiltration of treated waste-water from Shafdan (13 mcm/yr), and various pointsources of contamination from industries (12 mcm/yr) (Tables 3-5). Lateral inflows
to the basin include approximately 37 mcm/yr of brackish water from the Eocene
formation and approximately 6 mcm/yr from the sea (high-salinity). Lateral outflow
of freshwater to the sea accounts for approximately 20 mcm/yr.
In addition to the above natural recharge sources, return irrigation is estimated to
account for another 30 mcm/yr, artificial recharge of treated wastewater from Shafdan
is another approximately 120 mcm/yr, and flood water infiltration from the Sheqma
and Menashe facilities is approximately 15 mcm/yr.
Figure 19. Annual recharge from rainfall to the Coastal Basin. Averages and
medians for different time periods apply to the total recharge (mcm) from
rainfall.
5.4.2 The Coastal Basin within the Gaza Strip
The recharge from rain to the basin is approximately 40 mcm/yr with the majority
(approximately 25 mcm/yr) infiltrating into a subsurface with relatively high salinity
(chloride higher than 400 mg/l) (Tables 3-5). This ratio is based on the water salinity
map published by Mogheir (2003). Lateral inflow of groundwater from Israel (Figure
20) accounts for an additional approximately 30 mcm/yr of the total recharge. Sea
water intrusion into the basin has increased significantly over the years due to
overpumping. During the period 1973-1992 the inflow from sea water was estimated
to be 7 mcm/yr, while during the period from 1993-2009 the amount increased to
approximately 15 mcm/yr. The outflow of freshwater to the sea was estimated to be
approximately 5 mcm/yr during the period 1973-1992, and zero during the period
1993-2009 (Tables 3-5). Estimates of return flow vary between approximately 30-50
mcm/yr (Table 11). Overall, the aquifer storage is being depleted and the water
quality is being degraded at a very high rate
Figure 20. Water Level Map and Groundwater Flow Directions (Fall, 1998) in
the Gaza Area of the Coastal Basin (from Vengosh et al, 2005).
5.5 Lower Galilee Basin
The Lower Galilee Basin is bounded on the north by the eastern sector of the Upper
Galilee Basin and on the east by Lake Kinneret and the Jordan Valley. The basin is
bounded on the southwest by the Yizrael Valley and on the west by the water divide
separating the basin from the adjacent Western Galilee Basin (Figure 21). The Lower
Galilee Basin is composed of two major hydrogeologic units: 1). The Judea Group
(limestone and dolomite of Cenomanian age) and 2). Neogene basalt rocks (Figure
21). In addition, Quaternary alluvial sediments provide for localized aquifers.
The recharge calculations are based on a cell model developed by the Israel
Hydrologic Service (Bachmat, 1981; Bachmat and Ben Zvi, 1983; see appendix). The
model utilizes rainfall and groundwater level measurements to solve a time-series of
equations and obtain a recharge coefficient. Tables 3-5 summarize the average annual
natural recharge from rainfall for the various time periods. It can be seen that the
average recharge has decreased from 30 mcm/yr during the time period 1976-1992, to
26 mcm/yr during the time period 1993-2009. The total recharge to the basin comes
from rainfall alone (no lateral inflows or outflows) and approximately 6 mcm/yr of the
recharge is into relatively high salinity water (chloride concentrations above 400
mg/l). Spring flow accounts for approximately 12 mcm/yr. Figure 22 shows the
annual natural recharge from rainfall to the basin.
Figure 21. Lower Galilee Basin Location Map and Lithostratigraphic Column
with Major Hydrogeologic Units.
Total Recharge from Rainfall
Recharge from Rainfall less than 400 mg/l chloride
Average
Median
1976-1992
30
28
1993-2009
26
26
1976-2009
28
27
70
60
mcm
50
40
30
20
10
08
20
06
20
04
20
02
20
00
20
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
19
88
19
86
19
84
19
82
19
80
19
78
19
19
76
0
Figure 22. Annual recharge from rainfall to the Lower Galilee Basin. Averages
and medians for different time periods apply to the total recharge (mcm) from
rainfall.
5.6 Northeast Mountain Basins
The Northeast Mountain Basin is the portion of the greater Mountain Aquifer
(includes also the Western and Eastern Aquifers) which has a groundwater flow
direction mostly towards the north-northeast that emerges in several major springs.
The basin is a very important source of fresh water for both the Israeli and Palestinian
populations. The northern border of the basin is the Harod and Beit-She’an Valleys
and the western, southern and eastern borders (defined by the geologic structure) are
all located mostly within the Samarian Hills (Figure 23). Until 1967, the Kingdom of
Jordan was responsible for developing the water resources in the majority of the
basin.
The basin consists of two major hydrogeologic units: 1). The Avedat Group (Eocene)
which consists of chalk and limestone and outcrops throughout most of the Samarian
Hills and, 2). Limestone and dolomite of the Judea Group (Albian to Turonian) which
exists mostly at depth (limited outcropping) and has very high quality water. The
Avedat Group is a moderate aquifer providing fresh water with chloride
concentrations generally between 100 and 400 mg/l.
The groundwater in the Avedat Group exists under phreatic conditions and is very
prone to declines from overpumping. Springs that discharge from the Avedat Group,
especially in the area around Shchem, are also effected by overpumping. Below the
Avedat Group is found the Mount Scopus Group (Senonian), a sequence of marl and
clay that is relatively impermeable. This aquiclude separates the Avdat Group aquifer
from the underlying Judea Group aquifer and together with the major Shchem-Jenin
syncline structure plunging to the north-northeast, helps dictate the direction of
groundwater flow towards the thick sequence of alluvial sediments in the Harod and
Beit She’an Valleys.
The Judea Group aquifer exists under both confined and phreatic conditions. In
general, the hydraulic conductivity in the Judea Group aquifer is high due to the
development of karst and many significant springs discharge from the Judea Group.
In the phreatic portions of the aquifer where recharge occurs, overpumping has caused
significant groundwater level declines. On the other hand, groundwater levels near
the discharge areas are relatively unaffected by pumping because of the thick section
of saturated rock in the area. In some locations the Judea aquifer is divided into two
sub-aquifers due to the presence of an impermeable, up to 50 meters thick, marl and
clay layer.
Fault systems also cut across the basin, particularly near the Farah
anticline, to create a series of horst and graben structures that are filled with
quaternary alluvium. The quaternary alluvium provides a local aquifer which is also
considered as part of the Northeast Basin.
Beit
She’an
0-900
Upper
Aquifer
Upper
Aquifer
Lower
Aquifer
Lower
Aquifer
Beit
She’an
0-900
80
80
50
50
170
170
100-130
100-130
50-70
50-70
80-100
80-100
0-70
0-70
130-160
130-160
100-110
100-110
120-220
120-220
60-130
60-130
45-55
45-55
0-53
0-53
30-165
30-165
0-45
0-45
0-90
0-90
Jenin
Shchem
Jenin
Shchem
Modified after GSI,Modified
2000
after GSI, 2000
~5 km
~5 km
Modified after GSI,Modified
1998
after GSI, 1998
Figure 23. Northeast Mountain Basin Location Map and Lithostratigraphic
Column with Major Hydrogeologic Units.
The recharge to the Northeast basin is calculated by application of empirical recharge
coefficients obtained in previous calibrations for less detailed models (Guttman and
Tzukerman, 1995; Goldshtof and Shaliv, 1979). Details of the model are published in
Zilberbrand and Shaliv (1999). The model was calibrated for the period 1976-1996
and provides separate recharge values for the Avedat and Judea aquifers. In general,
each of the aquifers provides approximately half of the overall recharge to the basin
(Table 12). The small alluvial aquifers within the basin are modeled as part of the
Judea aquifer from which they receive the majority of recharge via lateral
groundwater flow. The recharge for the years 1997-present is calculated by using a
linear regression equation based on the model results and current rainfall data. The
lack of Palestinian pumping data since the year 2000 makes recalibration of the model
difficult.
The average natural recharge for the entire Northeast Mountain Basin is presented in
Tables 3-5 for the different time periods (1973-1992, 1993-2009 and 1973-2009).
Tables 6 and 7 present the annual recharge from rainfall and summarize the average
and the median recharge estimates for the different time periods. Figure 24 shows the
annual recharge from rain to the entire Northeast Mountain Basin in graphic form. It
can be seen that all of the recharge has chloride concentrations below 400 mg/l. The
average total recharge to the basin has decreased from approximately 151 mcm/yr
during the period 1976-1992 to approximately 134 mcm/yr during the period 19932009. This is due to the overall steady decline of precipitation in Israel over the last
30 years.
The decrease in recharge, together with an increase of groundwater
pumping has depleted the aquifer storage and degraded the groundwater quality. It is
worth noting that the recharge potential of the Northeast Mountain Basin was defined
in the Interim agreement as 145 mcm/yr, significantly higher than the recent average.
Table 12. Average and Median Annual Recharge Estimates for the Northeast
Mountain Basin Aquifers for Three Time Periods.
Northeast Basin
Upper and Lower Cenomanian
Northeast Basin
Eocene
Calibrated Numerical Model
(Zilberbrand and Shaliv, 1999)
1976-1996 provides time-series
recharge values for entire basin.
Limear regression with rainfall
data 1997-present.
Calibrated Numerical Model
(Zilberbrand and Shaliv, 1999)
1976-1996 provides time-series
recharge values for entire basin.
Limear regression with rainfall
data 1997-present.
78
73
Average
66
59
Median
73
61
Average
73
58
Median
75
67
Average
71
59
Median
1976-1992
1993-2009
1976-2009
Total Recharge from Rainfall
Recharge from Rainfall less than 400 mg/l chloride
Average
Median
1976-1992
151
131
1993-2009
134
130
1976-2009
142
130
450
400
350
mcm
300
250
200
150
100
50
08
20
06
20
04
20
02
20
00
20
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
19
88
19
86
19
84
19
82
19
80
19
78
19
19
76
0
Figure 24. Annual recharge from rainfall to the Northeast Mountain Basin.
Averages and medians for different time periods apply to the total recharge
(mcm) from rainfall.
5.7 Eastern Mountain Basins
The Eastern Mountain Basin is the portion of the greater Mountain Aquifer (also
includes the Western and Northeastern Aquifers) which flows towards the east. The
basin is a very important source of fresh water for both the Israeli and the Palestinian
populations. The western border of the basin follows approximately the surface water
divide along the ridge of the Judea and Samaria Hills, while the eastern border is the
Jordan Valley. To the south, the basin stretches to the region past the southern
Hevron Hills (Figure 25). The northern boundary of the basin has been defined in
most models as the Fara Graben.
However during the 1995 discussions of the
Interim Agreement the northern boundary of the Eastern Basin extended further north
to include the eastern side of the Fara anticline also known as Beka’ot. The alluvium
within the Jordan Valley is included in many of the models of the Eastern Basin but
has sometimes been considered separately (EXACT, 1998). Until 1967, the Kingdom
of Jordan was responsible for developing the water resources in the majority of the
Basin. The basin consists mainly of limestone and dolomite of the Cretaceous Judea
Group (Figure 25) which provides very high quality water from a high hydraulic
conductivity rock. In addition, the Quaternary alluvial sediments in the Jordan Valley
and Dead Sea area form a shallow aquifer that receives recharge from the adjacent
Judea Group (as well as from flood infiltration, return flow and direct rainfall) and is
therefore included as part of the Eastern Basin. The groundwater quality in the
alluvial aquifer is relatively low (300-800 mg/l chloride) and is prone to groundwater
level declines due to overpumping. The Jordan Valley is also heavily used for
agriculture and therefore the groundwater in the alluvial aquifer is being affected by
nitrates from fertilizers. A limited section of Eocene rocks in the northeastern-most
area serves as a local aquifer which is also included as part of the Eastern Mountain
Basin (Figure 25).
Figure 25. Eastern Mountain Basin Location Map and Lithostratigraphic
Column with Major Hydrogeologic Units.
The Judea Group exists under both confined and phreatic conditions. Overpumping in
the mountainous areas where the recharge occurs, has caused significant groundwater
level declines whereas groundwater levels near the discharge areas are relatively
undisturbed by pumping because of the thick section of saturated rock in the area. In
some locations the aquifer is divided into 2 sub-aquifers due to the presence of an
impermeable clay layer up to 50 meters thick.
The geological structure of the basin consists of a major anticline axis running in a
south-north direction. Just south of the city of Shchem, the anticline forks-off into
two separate anticlines (Um-el-Fachem which trends to the northwest and is part of
the Western Mountain Basin, and the Farah anticline which trends to the northeast and
forms the boundary between the Eastern and Northeast Mountain Basins. West of the
Dead Sea, the eastern flank of the major Judea anticline has a relatively shallow dip
with sub-structures (synclines and anticlines) that control the direction of groundwater
flow (Laronne and Gvirtzman, 2005).
The natural discharge of the Judea aquifer is to springs located along the western
shore of the Dead Sea and at various other locations near the Jordan Valley (Jericho,
Uja and Kelt for example) (Figure 26). In addition, many smaller springs discharge in
the mountainous regions through karstic openings. Overall, the springs account for
approximately 60% of the total recharge from the entire Mountain Basin (Eastern and
Northeastern, ~190 mcm/yr). Although the groundwater quality throughout most of
the aquifer is high, most of the springs along the Dead Sea are saline (concentrations
above 1000 mg/l chloride). This phenomenon is not completely understood however
the main consensus is that interstitial brines and salt formations seated deep in the
Judea Group promote the salinity in the groundwater as it flows towards the discharge
points.
The recharge to the Eastern Mountain Basin is calculated using two methods: 1). A
cell-balance model (Bachmat, 1981; Bachmat and Ben Zvi, 1983; see appendix)
which solves a system of equations for multiple unknowns, including the rainrecharge coefficient (see appendix) by using precipitation and groundwater pumping
data, along with groundwater level and spring discharge data, and 2). a numerical
model (MODFLOW) which provides a number of parameters (mainly the recharge
distribution) according to calibration with groundwater level changes and other
parameters.
It is important to note that the boundaries for the two modeling
approaches do not overlap. The cell-balance model considers an open flow boundary
between the Judea aquifer to the west and the alluvial aquifer in the Jordan Valley to
the east, while the numerical model applies a no-flow boundary between the aquifers
thereby disregarding the Jordan Valley. Similarly, the cell-balance model considers
the southern-most area of the basin within its boundaries while the numerical model
disregards this area (no flow boundary conditions).
Table 13 summarizes the average and median values for the recharge to the Eastern
Mountain basin for each of the models. According to the models, the average total
annual recharge to the basin has decreased significantly from approximately 211
mcm/yr during the period 1976-1992 to approximately 174 mcm/yr during the period
1993-2009 (Cell Model). The numerical model shows a decrease from 173 mcm/yr
during the period 1976-1992 to 138 mcm/yr during the period 1993-2009. Tables 6
and 7, along with Figure 27, present the time-series of annual recharge from rainfall
for the calibrated cell-balance model. It can be seen that all of the recharge coming
from rainfall in the mountainous regions has chloride concentrations below 400 mg/l.
Again, the decrease in recharge is due to the overall steady decline of precipitation in
Israel over the last 30 years. This decrease, together with an increase of groundwater
pumping, has depleted the aquifer storage and in specific areas (higher elevations)
some pumping wells have gone dry. It is worth noting that the recharge potential of
the Eastern Mountain Basin was agreed in the Interim Agreement as 172 mcm/yr.
Figure 26. Major Springs in the Eastern and Northeastern Mountain Basins
with Approximate Annual Discharge.
Table 13. Average and Median Annual Recharge Estimates for the Eastern
Basin from Two Separate Models.
Eastern Mountain Basin
Upper and Lower Cenomanian,
Eocene and Alluvium in Jordan
Valley
Eastern Mountain Basin
Upper and Lower Cenomanian
Calibrated Cell Model (Bachmat)
provides rainfall-recharge coefficient
for basin including Jordan Valley but
excluding eastern Beka’ot and Farah
Valley.
Calibrated MODFLOW Model (Tahal/HIS)
provides time-series recharge values for
partial basin (excludes southern-most cell
667, entire area north of Farah Valley, and
Jordan Valley).
211
173
Average
187
134
Median
174
138
Average
167
127
Median
192
157
Average
182
130
Median
1976-1992
1993-2009
1976-2009
Average
Median
Total Recharge from Rainfall
1976-1992
211
187
Recharge from Rainfall less than 400 mg/l chloride
1993-2009
174
167
1976-2009
192
182
450
400
350
mcm
300
250
200
150
100
50
08
20
06
20
04
20
02
20
00
20
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
19
88
19
86
19
84
19
82
19
80
19
78
19
19
76
0
Figure 27. Annual recharge from rainfall to the Eastern Mountain Basin based
on a Calibrated Cell-Balance Model. Shows total and chloride concentration
below 400 mg/liter (in this case identical). Averages and medians for different
time periods apply to the total recharge (mcm) from rainfall.
5.8 Western Mountain Basin (Yarkon-Taninim)
The Western Mountain Basin, also known as the Yarkon-Taninim Basin, is the
portion of the greater Mountain Aquifer (includes also the Eastern and Northeastern
Aquifers) in which rainwater infiltrating at the outcrops flows towards the west. The
basin stretches from the water divide in the Judea and Samaria Hills in the east until
the Mediterranean Sea in the west. The northern border of the basin extends to the
Yizrael Valley and Carmel block while the southern extent is well into the Sinai
Peninsula (Weinberger et al., 1994), (Figure 28).
The major hydrogeologic unit making up the basin is the Judea Group aquifer
consisting mainly of limestone and dolomite from the upper Cretaceous. In the
eastern areas the geologic units are exposed, while towards the western areas the
aquifer becomes confined below relatively impermeable rocks (Eocene and Senonian
chalks and marls). The Judea Group is divided into upper and lower sub-aquifers by a
relatively impermeable marl and clay unit with a thickness of 40-120 meters (Figures
23 and 25 above), (Weinberger et al., 1994). Groundwater in more than half of the
basin area is brackish or saline. The eastern portion of the aquifer contains mostly
high-quality groundwater. At the foot of the Judea and Samaria Hills, the lower subaquifer contains fresher groundwater than the upper sub-aquifer. To the north of
Netanya, saline water west of the aquifer represents a seawater interface with the
aquifer.
At several locations (e.g. Kalkilya, Tulkarm and Hebron) within the areas under the
control of the Palestinian Authority, fresh groundwater is contaminated by nitrates.
Before pumping from the aquifer started in the early 1950’s, groundwater discharge
by the Yarkon and Taninim springs was about 220 and 110 MCM/yr, respectively
(Goldschmidt and Jacobs,1958),(Figure 28). The increase in pumping caused a
gradual drop of groundwater levels and as a result, by the 1960’s the Yarkon springs
stopped flowing. The discharge rate of the Taninim springs in 2009 was
approximately 16 mcm whereas the average for the period 1993-2009 was 45 mcm/yr.
Although several hydrogeological models of different spatial and temporal resolution
have been developed for the Western Basin, recharge is estimated mostly by using a
cell-balance model (Bachmat, 1981; Bachmat and Ben Zvi, 1983; see appendix) that
considers a single aquifer system (no subdivision into sub-aquifers) with three cells of
10-60 km2 size (see appendix).
Figure 28. Boundaries of the Western Mountain Basin including the Historical
(1950s) Spring Discharges.
The model uses a time step of 1 year and solves a system of equations for multiple
unknowns (including the rain-recharge coefficient) by using precipitation and
groundwater pumping data, along with groundwater level and spring discharge data.
The average natural recharge for the Western Mountain Basin is presented in Tables
3-5 for the different time periods (1973-1992, 1993-2009 and 1976-2009).
Tables 6 and 7, along with Figure 29, present the time-series of annual recharge from
rainfall for the cell-balance model.
Total Recharge from Rainfall
Recharge from Rainfall less than 400 mg/l chloride
Average
Median
1976-1992
369
342
1993-2009
333
337
1976-2009
352
340
900
800
700
mcm
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Figure 29. Annual recharge from rainfall to the Western (Yarkon-Taninim)
Mountain Basin. Shows total and chloride concentration below 400 mg/liter (in
this case identical). Averages and medians for different time periods apply to the
total recharge (mcm) from rainfall.
The total recharge to the aquifer has decreased from approximately 369 mcm/yr
during the period 1973-1992, to approximately 333 mcm/yr during the period 19932009. All of the recharge reaching the outcrops in the mountainous regions has
chloride concentrations less than 400 mg/l. However, it is important to note that in
the southern part of the basin there is a significant plume of relatively high salinity
groundwater (up to 2500 mg/l chloride). Similarly, the western margin of the basin is
in contact with groundwater which has the salinity of slightly diluted seawater
(chloride concentrations above 10,000 mg/l; Figure 30). Therefore, over-pumping at
the foothills may cause degradation of the generally high groundwater quality owing
to propagation of the interface eastward. Currently, less than half the aquifer volume
contains groundwater with chloride concentrations less than 400 mg/l.
Figure 30. Distribution of High Salinity Groundwater in the Western Mountain
Basin.
The decrease in recharge is due to the overall decline of precipitation in Israel over the
last 30 years, and together with an increase of groundwater pumping, aquifer storage
has been seriously depleted. The cell model provides two ways of calculating the net
storage change. First, it can be calculated using rainfall data, pumping and spring
flow data, and recharge coefficients. Second, since water levels are measured, the
storage changes can also be calculated from these measurements and head-storage
coefficients (See Appendix). It has been found that the storage change values
calculated by the first method (recharge minus withdrawals) are lower than by the
second (using measured water level changes). It is surmised that this discrepancy is
due to either an unmeasured element of water inflow from the upper aquifers (Eocene
and/or Coastal), or an unconsidered storage change in the mountain portion of the
basin where the current monitoring scheme is insufficient.
In the absence of
additional data, the water balance equation is corrected by introducing an additional
“water input" calculated as an empirical function of the calculated groundwater
recharge. Figure 31 shows that this problem is especially pronounced in years with
low rainfall.
Figure 31. Relationship Between the Discrepancy of Estimated Storage Change
and the Calculated Recharge.
In addition to the relatively simple cell model, a number of other models have been
developed over the years for the Western Mountain Basin including the following:
1. A MODFLOW model by Tahal (Guttman & Tzukerman, 1995). Considered a
single aquifer system with cell sizes 5-20 km2 and a time step of 0.5 year. The
estimate of the average groundwater recharge during 1971-2003 is 367 mcm.
2. A MODFLOW model built for Harvard University (Bachmat, 1995).
Considered a 2-layer aquifer system with equal 20x20 km2 cells and a time
step of 1 year. The estimate of the average groundwater recharge during
1975-1995 is 330 mcm.
3. A MATLAB model by Mekorot (Berger, 1999). Considered a single aquifer
system with an irregular mesh, a time step of 1 day for rain input and 1 month
for both input and forecast of groundwater levels. The estimate of the average
groundwater recharge during 1971-2010 is 348 mcm.
4. A PMWIN (MODFLOW) model built for Michigan University (Bachmat &
Wolman, 2000) updated recently on GMS by Wolman et al., 2010. The model
considers 2 sub-aquifers at 5x5 km2 cells and a time step of 0.25 year. The
estimate of the average groundwater recharge during 1975-2010 is 350 mcm.
5. A FEFLOW model built by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Dafni et al.,
2009). Considers 2 sub-aquifers with an irregular mesh, and a time step of 1
day for rain input and 1 month for both input and forecast of groundwater
levels. The estimate of the average groundwater recharge during 1978-2008 is
354 mcm.
It can be seen that all of the models yield estimates of the average ground water
recharge similar to the cell model. Figure 32 presents a comparison of the annual
recharge time series for the three most updated models. It is worth noting that the
recharge potential of the Western Mountain Basin was defined in the Interim
Agreement as 362 mcm/yr which is significantly higher than the most recent average
(333 mcm/yr). It is also important to note that all of the models have difficulty in
calibrating the 1991-1992 extremely rainy winter.
Cell Model (1981,1983)
Modflow (2010)
Matlab (1999)
1400
1200
Recharge (mcm)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1972
1977
1982
1987
1992
1997
2002
2007
Year
Figure 32. Recharge Time Series for three most Updated Models of the YarkonTaninim Basin.
5.9 Negev and Arava Basins
The Negev and Arava Basin is bordered by the Sinai Peninsula in the west and south,
the Negev in the north, and the Arava valley in the east (Figure 33). The boundary
with the Yarkon Taninim and Eastern Mountain Basins in the north is generally
defined by the structural northern anticlines of the Negev, which form a structural
groundwater divide. The boundary in the east is defined along the major Dead Sea rift
valley faults.
The Negev and Arava Basins are composed of three major hydrogeological units: 1).
The Kurnub Group (Nubian Sandstone) consisting of variegated sandstones
alternating with some silts, clays and shales from the Lower Cretaceous period, 2).
The Judea Group consisting of hard carbonates (limestone and dolomite) alternating
2012
with some shales and marls from the Albian to Turonian period, and 3). The Hatzeva
and Dead Sea Groups, a sequence of sedimentary rocks which accumulated in the
Arava rift valley and Karkom graben consisting of clastic alluvium alternating with
clays from the Neogene and Quaternary periods (Figure 34).
Figure 33. Location Map of the Negev and Arava Basin.
Figure 34. Hydro-stratigraphy of the Negev and Arava Basin (after Druckman et
al, 1993).
The Negev and Arava Basins are located in the most arid region of Israel where
precipitation is extremely low. The recharge to the aquifer is by infiltration from
isolated flashflood events which occur at most just a few times each year. Generally,
groundwater flows from Sinai and the Negev into the Arava valley, southern Dead
Sea and the Gulf of Eilat. A local surface and groundwater divide exists in the central
Arava which divides the flow towards the Dead Sea in the north and the Gulf of Eilat
in the South.
The recharge contribution in the Negev and Arava hydrogeological basin is based on
several scientific papers and reports (Shentsis et al., 1997; Guttman et al., 1998; Bein
et al., 2001; Shentsis et al., 2001(a); Shentsis et al., 2001(b); Halamish, 2004). The
estimated total recharge to the basins is approximately 32 mcm/yr (16 mcm - Hatzeva
and Dead Sea Groups, 13 mcm - Judea Group and 3 mcm - Kurnub Group) with the
majority (28 mcm/yr) having chloride concentrations greater than 400 mg/l.
A
detailed division of the total recharge contribution in the Negev and Arava
hydrogeological basin is given in Figures 35(a-c) and Table 14.
Recharge
contribution is small and almost constant in time because: 1). the main source of
water is from fossil storage, 2). the minor recharge is insignificant compared to
pumping, and 3). the minor recharge falls onto outcrops far away from the pumping
area. The average natural recharge for the Basin is presented in Tables 3-5 for the
different time periods (1973-1992, 1993-2009 and 1973-2009), and includes the
chloride concentration distribution. Tables 6 and 7 present the time-series of annual
recharge from rainfall for the basin.
Figures 35(a-c). Maps of Recharge Distribution to a). Hatzeva and Dead Sea
Group Aquifers, b). Judea Group Aquifer, c). Kurnub Group Aquifer,
throughout the Various Areas of the Negev and Arava Basin.
Table 14. Summary of Recharge Distribution for the Various Aquifers in the
Negev and Arava Basin according to Chloride Concentrations.
Aquifer
Hazeva and Dead Sea Group Aquifers
Area
Recharge (mcm/year)
Northwestern
5.2
Northeastern
2.3
Karkom Graben
1.6
Yutum Valley
2.0
Roded Valley
0.4
Southeastern
4.2
Recharge 250-400 mg/l chloride
3.6
Recharge >400 mg/l chloride
12.1
Total Recharge
15.7
Judea Group Aquifer
Zin Valley
2.5
Nekarot Valley
2.0
Paran Valley
0.4
Northern
Anticlines
3.2
Mahmal
Anticline
4.4
Recharge 250-400 mg/l chloride
0.0
Recharge >400 mg/l chloride
12.5
Total Recharge
12.5
Kurnub Group Aquifer
Zin Valley
0.4
Hatira Anticline
0.5
Hatzera Anticline 1.0
Mahmal
Anticline
1.5
Recharge 250-400 mg/l chloride
0.0
Recharge >400 mg/l chloride
3.4
Total Recharge
3.4
Entire Negev and Arava Basin
Recharge 250-400 mg/l chloride
3.6 (11%)
Recharge >400 mg/l chloride
28 (89%)
Total Recharge
31.6
5.10 Summary of Recharge Estimates for all Basins
Table 6 summarizes the annual recharge from rainfall for all of the basins/aquifers
from 1976 to 2009 (values for some sources going back to 1971), and the statistical
parameters for three time periods. These volumes include water that is considered
usable for domestic supply, including water with chloride concentrations above 400
mg/l (below the drinking water standard). Table 7 summarizes the annual recharge
from rainfall for all of the basins/aquifers for low-salinity water alone, i.e., with
chloride concentration below 400 mg/l. These results are also shown in Figures 36-41
below.
The calculated average for the entire time period from 1973-2009 for total recharge
from rain to all the basins (excluding Gaza) is 1,748 mcm/yr while the calculated
median for this period is 1,654 mcm/yr (Figure 36). For the shorter, more recent time
period from 1993 to 2009, the average and median values are 1,643 and 1,551
mcm/yr, respectively (Figure 37). A comparison between the earlier time period
(1973-1992) and the later time period (1993-2009) reveals that the total average
annual recharge from rainfall has decreased dramatically (11%) from 1,848 to 1,643
mcm/yr (Figure 38).
Figure 39 shows that the average volume of recharge from rain with chloride
concentrations below 400 mg/l for the entire period from 1973-2009 for all of Israel’s
basins (excluding Gaza) is 1,533 mcm/yr. The median for the same time period is
1,439 mcm/yr. An examination of the more recent time period alone (1993-2009)
shows an average and median annual recharge from rain (low salinity only)
significantly lower, 1,433 and 1,349 mcm, respectively (Figure 40). Figure 41 shows
a comparison between the earlier time period and the later time period. It can be seen
that the average annual low-salinity recharge has decreased nearly 12%, from 1,627 to
1,433 mcm.
In particular, the Kinneret Basin shows a very significant decrease (Table 6, Figure
38) from 623 mcm/yr in the earlier period, to 540 mcm/yr in the more recent period
(total recharge including higher-salinity water), a decrease of more than 13%. The
Kinneret Basin is the largest of the basins providing more than a third of the country’s
fresh water. It can be seen that the differences become less significant in most of the
basins when the median is compared. However, in the Kinneret Basin the differences
are even more significant when the median is compared. Also important to note is the
inverse correlation between recharge and salinity: as natural recharge decreases,
salinity concentrations increase. According to regional climate models the available
water in the Kinneret Basin will continue to decrease, approximately 15% for the
period 2014-2035 relative to 1979-2007 (Rimmer et al., 2011).
Figure 42 shows the difference in precipitation between the period of 1993-2009 and
the period of 1973-1992 in the Middle East. The decrease in precipitation which has
occurred in Israel can be clearly seen in the figure.
Average (1973-2009)
Median (1973-2009)
2000
1748
1654
1800
1790
1690
1600
Recharge (mcm)
1400
1200
1000
800
581
535
600
400
352
340
243
231
192
182
200
142
130
136 136
28 27
41 41
42 37
32 32
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
ou
tG
az
a
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
er
et
Ki
n
ev
Ne
g
Ca
rm
el
ai
n
w
er
G
al
ile
W
e
es
te
rn
G
al
ile
e
Lo
M
ou
nt
nt
ai
n
ou
M
Ea
st
er
n
No
r
th
M
W
es
te
rn
Ea
st
er
n
ou
nt
ai
n
Co
as
ta
l
0
Figure 36. Average and Median Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the Entire
Time Period, 1973-2009.
Average (1993-2009)
Median (1993-2009)
1800
1643
1600
1551
1682
1586
1400
Recharge (mcm)
1200
1000
800
540
600
468
400
333 337
232
221
174
200
167 134
130
132 129
40 40
26 26
40 35
32 32
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
To
ta
lw
it h
ou
tG
az
a
G
az
a
Ki
n
er
et
ev
Ne
g
Ca
rm
el
Lo
M
ou
nt
ai
n
w
er
G
al
ile
W
e
es
te
rn
G
al
ile
e
nt
ai
n
ou
Ea
st
er
n
No
r
th
W
es
te
rn
Ea
st
er
n
M
M
ou
Co
a
nt
ai
n
st
al
0
Figure 37. Average and Median Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the
Recent Time Period, 1993-2009.
Average (1973-1992)
Average (1993-2009)
2000
1892
1848
1800
1643
1682
1600
Recharge (mcm)
1400
1200
1000
800
623
540
600
369
400
252
232
333
211
200
174 151
134
139 132
30 26
42 40
44 40
32 32
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
ou
tG
az
a
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
er
et
Ki
n
ev
Ne
g
Ca
rm
el
ai
n
w
er
G
al
ile
W
e
es
te
rn
G
al
ile
e
Lo
Ea
st
er
n
M
ou
nt
nt
ai
n
ou
M
No
r
th
M
W
es
te
rn
Ea
st
er
n
ou
Co
a
nt
ai
n
st
al
0
Figure 38. Comparison Between the Average Recharge from Rainfall Estimates
for the Earlier Time Period (1973-1992) and the Later Time Period (1993-2009).
Average (1973-2009)
Median (1973-2009)
1800
1548
1533
1453
1439
1600
Recharge (mcm)
1400
1200
1000
800
565
515
600
352
340
400
192
182
123
115
200
142
130
106 106
26 26
22 21
4
15 14
4
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
To
ta
lw
it h
ou
tG
az
a
G
az
a
Ki
ne
re
t
ev
Ne
g
Ca
rm
el
M
ou
nt
ai
n
Lo
w
er
G
al
ile
W
e
es
te
rn
G
al
ile
e
nt
ai
n
ou
Ea
st
er
n
No
r
th
W
es
te
rn
Ea
st
er
n
M
M
ou
Co
a
nt
ai
n
st
al
0
Figure 39. Average and Median Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the Entire
Time Period (1973-2009) with Chloride Concentration Below 400 mg/l.
Average (1993-2009)
Median (1993-2009)
1600
1450
1433
1364
1349
1400
Recharge (mcm)
1200
1000
800
600
526
454
333 337
400
174
167
116
113
200
134
130
102 99
20 20
25 25
4
17 14
4
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
ou
tG
az
a
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
er
et
Ki
n
ev
Ne
g
Ca
rm
el
ai
n
Lo
w
er
G
al
ile
W
e
es
te
rn
G
al
ile
e
Ea
st
er
n
M
ou
nt
nt
ai
n
ou
M
No
rt
h
M
W
es
te
rn
Ea
st
er
n
ou
n
Co
a
ta
in
st
al
0
Figure 40. Average and Median Recharge from Rainfall Estimates for the
Recent Time Period (1993-2009) with Chloride Concentration Below 400 mg/l.
Average (1973-1992)
Average (1993-2009)
1800
1640
1627
1600
1433
1450
1400
Recharge (mcm)
1200
1000
800
605
600
526
369
400
333
211
174
128
116
200
151
134
109 102
24 20
27 25
4
13 17
4
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
ou
tG
az
a
G
az
a
ta
lw
it h
To
er
et
Ki
n
ev
Ne
g
Ca
rm
el
ai
n
w
er
G
al
ile
W
e
es
te
rn
G
al
ile
e
Lo
M
ou
nt
nt
ai
n
ou
M
Ea
st
er
n
No
r
th
M
W
es
te
rn
Ea
st
er
n
ou
Co
a
nt
ai
n
st
al
0
Figure 41. Comparison Between the Average Recharge from Rainfall Estimates
for the Earlier Time Period (1973-1992) and the Later Time Period (1993-2009)
with Chloride Concentration Below 400 mg/l.
mm/day
Figure 42: Rainfall (mm/day) in the Middle East for the period of 1993-2009 compared
to the period of 1973-1992. Source: The 20th Century Reanalysis V2 Monthly
Composites provided by the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory.
6. Appendix
A cell-balance model is utilized by the Israel Hydrologic Service for calculating the
annual recharge to many of the hydrologic basins in Israel.
Pumping + Spring Discharge
Recharge
Recharge = ARi* Rain
Storage Change = AS* dH
dH
Qin
Qout
Where:
Qin - inflow from neighboring cells
Qout - outflow from neighboring cells
H
- piezometric head
ARi - rain-recharge coefficient
AS - head-storage coefficient
A (i-1),i / A i,(i+1) - water exchange coefficients
between adjacent cells
(Pumping + Spring Discharge)i = ARi * Raini – A(i-1),i * (Hi-1 – Hi( + Ai,(i+1) * (Hi – Hi+1) – AS * (Hit+1 – Hit)
General Theory of Cell-Balance Model Used by the Israel Hydrologic Service for
Estimating Recharge to Groundwater Basins.
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Bachmat, Y., 1995. Hydrologic model of the Western Mountain groundwater basin.
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Bachmat, Y. and Ben-Zvi, M., 1983. A Bayesian Approach to the Estimation of
Hydrogeological parameters, Application to the Coastal Aquifer, Hydrological
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Bachmat, Y. and Wolman, S., 2000. Development and Testing of a Hydrological
Model to Assess the movement of Pollutants in the Western Basin of the Mountain
Aquifer (2000). In: Environmental Protection of the Shared Israeli-Palestinian
Mountain Aquifer. Final Report. Jan. 1994 – Dec. 1999. Supported by USAID,
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Bachmat, Y., Dax, A. and Reshef, G., 2003. Yearly Operation of the Coastal Aquifer,
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Bein, A., Yechieli, Y. and Ben-shabat, J., 2001. Quantifying the groundwater
resources of the southern Arava Rift Valley: A confined desert system recharged
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Berger, D., 1999. Hydrological model of the Yarkon-Taninim aquifer, Report of
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Braun, M., 1967. Type sections of Avedat Group, Eocene Formations in the
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Druckman, Y., Weissbrod, T. and Garfunkel, Z., 1993. Geological Map of Israel,
Yotvata and Elat, 1:100,000, Geological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem.
EXACT, 1998. Overview of Middle East water resources.
Geological Survey for the Executive Action Team, 44 pp.
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Flexer, A., 1968. Stratigraphy and facies development of Mount Scopus Group
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Freund, R., 1959. On the stratigraphy and tectonics of the upper Cretaceous of
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Halamish, N., 2004. A dynamic mixing cells model for evaluation of groundwater
flow, transport and salinization processes in the Northern Arava Valley. Ph.D. BenGurion University of the Negev. Israel. 167 pp. (in Hebrew).
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the Eastern Mediterranean region, TheorApplClimatol 103, pps. 167-195.
Laronne, L. and Gvirtzman, H., 2005. Groundwater flow along and across structural
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WATER AUTHORITY
The Natural Water Resources
Between the Mediterranean Sea
and the Jordan River
Gavriel Weinberger
Israel Hydrological Service
Gabiw20@water.gov.il
Yakov Livshitz
Israel Hydrological Service
YakovL20@water.gov.il
Amir Givati
Israel Hydrological Service
Amirg@water.gov.il
Michael Zilberbrand
Israel Hydrological Service
Michaelz20@water.gov.il
Adi Tal
Israel Hydrological Service
Adit20@water.gov.il
Menachem Weiss
Israel Hydrological Service
Menachemw@water.gov.il
Arik Zurieli
Israel Hydrological Service
Arikz@water.gov.il