Chapter 8: Political Geography
Chapter 8 Outline
Introduction. Political geography is concerned with the study of the way governments organize
and administer space on Earth's surface, and especially the geographic dimensions of conflict.
Case Study: Changing Borders in Europe. The changing nature of the French-German border
and the addition of borders in Yugoslavia are used to illustrate that political geography can
change over time.
Key Issue 1. Where Are States Located?
Problems of Defining States. Not all states are universally recognized or well-defined.
Examples include Korea (both governments are in support of unification but govern
independently), China and Taiwan (China and the United Nations do not recognize the
government of Taiwan), and Western Sahara (Morocco does not recognize claims of
independence). Polar regions are also subject to multiple, often overlapping claims.
Varying Sizes of States. States vary from extremely large (Russia, China, Canada) to very small
microstates, which are mostly islands.
Development of the State Concept. The state concept developed in the Middle East. The first
states were territories surrounding cities, or city-states. The largest unified political territory of
pre-Industrial times was the Roman Empire. After the fall of the Roman Empire, European states
eventually formed around powerful kings.
European states diffused the state concept through colonialism beginning in the 1400s, claiming
territory for trade and prestige the Western Hemisphere and later Africa and Asia. The European
colonial era ended in the Western Hemisphere by 1824. Many African and Asian colonies were
held until after World War II. The few colonial possessions that remain are mostly isolated
islands.
Key Issue 2. Why Do Boundaries Between States Cause Problems?
Shapes of States. A state's shape can tell us something about the conditions in which the state
was formed as well as potential problems it may face. The five basic shapes of states are
compact (efficient communication and transportation), elongated (isolation of distant parts of the
state), prorupted (with a projecting extension of territory signifying access to some resource or
disruption of neighboring states), perforated (South Africa is perforated by Lesotho, which
places Lesotho at the whim of South Africa), and fragmented by water or other states (problems
with internal communication or in dealing with states in between fragments). Landlocked states
have difficulty engaging in international trade because they lack direct access to the ocean.
Types of Boundaries. Physical boundaries such as deserts, mountains, and water are all used to
separate states and may be effective in part because they represent a physical barrier to
movement. Cultural boundaries such as geometric lines, religious boundaries, and language
boundaries can be problematic because they rarely divide all individuals perfectly between each
side of the boundary. An example of a boundary reinforcing differences on either side is that of
Cyprus, which is divided between Turkish and Greek control. Frontiers, indefinite areas
between states, are becoming much less common.
Boundaries Inside States. State organization of internal territory falls onto a continuum from
unitary (strong central government) to federal (strong local or regional government) forms of
government. States have tended to become more federal in their organization over the past few
decades. Electoral geography refers to the arrangement of electoral districts. These districts
may be arranged to benefit the group in power, a process called gerrymandering.
Key Issue 3. Why Do States Cooperate with Each Other?
Political and Military Cooperation. The United Nations is the most important global force for
political and military cooperation. Its 192 members work to resolve conflicts. Regional military
alliances were important in the post-World War II Cold War between the United States and the
Soviet Union, which had opposing military alliances in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
and the Warsaw Pact. Other regional political and military organizations include the
Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organization of American States, the
African Union, and the Commonwealth.
Economic Cooperation. Economic power is eclipsing political and military power on the world
stage. The European Union has emerged as the world's leading superpower based on its
economic power. Economic liberalization in Europe under the EU has created a single, powerful
market.
Key Issue 4. Why Has Terrorism Increased?
Terrorism by Individuals and Organizations. Terrorism can be difficult to define. It is
generally considered that terrorists operate outside of government, but this definition is
problematic when applied to state sponsors of terror. Terrorists attack common citizens instead
of military personnel or political figures. The United States has experienced a number of terrorist
attacks since the late 1980s, but the attacks of September 11, 2001 motivated dramatic concern.
The Al-Qaeda network led by Osama bin Laden was implicated in the 9/11 and later attacks.
State Support for Terrorism. Libya, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, and Pakistan have all been
accused of supporting terrorism at various levels. The U.S. has been particularly involved in
attempting to curb terrorism through military action in Afghanistan and Iraq, though the
justification for the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 was not well supported.
Global Forces, Local Impacts: Where is Osama bin Laden? Geographers based at UCLA
applied geographic analysis to predict likely locations of Osama bin Laden.
Contemporary Geographic Tools: Air Photos in War and Peace. This section contrasts the
use of aerial photos by the U.S. government to confront the Soviet Union over missile-launching
sites in Cuba with the air photos Secretary of State Colin Powell presented as evidence that Iraq
was hiding stores of chemical weapons.