Sanitation Review Report:
A Consolidation of Data and Analysis of Outcomes for
Design and IEC Consultants
Prepared By
Belinda Abraham
Consultant UNICEF-WES
October 2001
N.B. Internal Use only.
Not to be quoted.
UNICEF-Lilongwe
Sanitation Review Report:
1.0
Purpose:
This report reviews the data collected by the three sanitation review teams in order
to make recommendations for the design modifications of sanitation facilities in
primary schools and households.
2.0
Outcome:
While the information presented by the sanitation review teams is of varying of
quality, it is clear that the process was innovative in attempting to evaluate
sanitation facilities. The review presents a good starting point for the evaluation of
technical options suitable for schools.
The report also notes that children spoke very candidly about their sanitation
facilities and gave good insights for improvements. From the findings, children
appear to be effective and keen advocates for improved sanitation both in their
schools and communities.
Beyond technology options, the reports also gives indications that workmanship and
cleanliness are two equal and important factors for students when it come their
sanitation facilities in school. If children feel at risk that the latrine will collapse or
feel it is disgusting, they will not use the latrine and will go to the bush.
Technological factors can contribute to some degree to ensure better workmanship
and maintenance. However, the most effective means to ensure that the facilities
are in good working order is to combine latrine construction with a school organized
monitoring and supervision activities, as well as, a school hygiene programme. Ideas
on designing these programmes should be explored during the project orientations
with teachers and school committees.
This report is broken down in two sections. Section A is the outcome of focus
groups and design recommendations. Section B is a tabular presentation of findings
from site visits including sanitation options and costs.
3.0
Section A
The focus groups with students were an integral part of the information collection
and data analysis. Information came from the following schools:



Children in Standards 6, 7, and 8 in Malenga Mzoma Full Primary School,
Uhoho Junior Primary School, Lisale Full Primary School from Nkhata Bay
District and Nkhata Bay Secondary School.
Children from Lukali Full Primary School, and Kanyerere Full Primary School,
Rumphi district
Children from Zambwe Full Primary School, Nkhangira School: and Nkhangwa
CDSS in Chitipa District:
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


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
Students from Masasa School- Mzuzu City Assembly
Kapiriminyanga and Nzizia Schools in Kasungu District
Mtenthera School in Lilongwe District
Chauta School in Ntcheu District
Chigoti School and Vocational Training and Rehab center in Chiradzulu District
Kholongo Primary School in Chikwawa District
Ndirande School in the City of Blantyre
3.1
Why Children do not use latrines and urinals?
Children in Standards 6, 7, and 8 from Malenga Mzoma Full Primary School, said that
some students did not use the latrines because of the smell and that the holes of the
latrines were too big for small children. In the rainy season, students said that the
traditional latrine floors become muddy and disgusting because of the leaky roof
structure.
The students from Uhoho Junior Primary School from Nkhata Bay District, did not
like their traditional latrines because the grass roof leaks during the rains, wood
poles rot, and the soil walls that dirty them. Moreover, the main problems associated
with their latrines were the bad smell, flies, termites and the problems of latrines
collapsing. Because of the fear of the latrine collapsing, the younger children did not
use the latrines. However, teachers added from a school in Chitipa District that
poor use and fear of the latrines stems from lack of exposure in their homes. When
children first come to school they often misuse latrine by defecating on the floor and
not into the hole.
Normally, the male students construct the urinals in their school. Many boys from
Uhoho Junior Primary School from Nkhata Bay District, do not use the urinals and
prefer to use the bush because they feel that the facilities are not good. The major
issue related to the urinals was the lack of privacy. They said that users can be seen,
and the structure was poorly made as children constructed it. Some boys did not like
the fact that urinals did not have a roof and the soak away pits became full with the
rains. There is also a high risk that the urinal fences would collapse because it is
made from grass and poles and subject to termite attack.
In Lukali Full Primary School, Rumphi district, children mentioned three major groups
who do not use the latrines: deaf, standard 1 girls, and lame/cripple students. Deaf
children do not understand the important of using a pit latrine; standard 1 girls feel
the hole is too big, and the lame have no support. Furthermore, traditional latrines
were seen as not suitable for the blind because there were no clear demarcations for
position of the hole, i.e. no footrests.
Children in Standards 6, 7, and 8 from Malenga Mzoma Full Primary School, said that
the disabled children in the school do not use latrines. In particular, the blind
children have to go to the bush because of the poor state of the latrines. The blind
children must crawl and feel their way toward the latrines. It is, therefore, seen as a
better and more hygienic option for the blind children to use the bush. Blind
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students also have a difficult time aiming into the hole, so for the sake of other
users, it is better for them to use the bush.
In Mzuzu city, children noted the importance of latrines but also pointed out that
despite this urination and defecation is done indiscriminately, even with the presence
of latrines and urinals. In Msasa School, many children did not use the latrines
because of the poor hygienic condition of the latrines. Many children preferred to go
in the banana groves or wait until they went home.
3.2
Why children like and use latrines and urinals?
Children feel it is important to use a latrine for prevention of diseases like cholera. In
addition, the latrine offers privacy and protection from snakes in the bushes. Having
a latrine in the school was also seen as prestigious and places the school at a high
status. Without a latrine children must travel far from classrooms to the bushes to
defecate and therefore a latrine is also seen as convenient. The students from
Uhoho Junior Primary School from Nkhata Bay District feel the presence of the
latrine beautifies their school and latrines produce little odor. In a focus group in the
Southern Region, latrines were described as giving dignity and a sense of respect to
the user. This comment tied in with the common statements about latrines providing
privacy or the need for privacy by the user.
Children from Rumphi district appreciated the quality of the VIP latrine construction
by GTZ. The cement floor was smooth and easy to mop. But as well, the boys and
girls latrines are clearly separate.
The children appreciated the design of the VIP latrines for a number of other
reasons: no wooden planks so it would not rot, the pits were lined so will not
collapse, and the hole was deep and it will not fill quickly. Also, the vent pipes
decreased smell.
Boys felt that the presence of urinals assisted in keeping the latrines clean and
prevented misuse of latrines and decreased the numbers of latrine users. The
children from a school in Rumphi district felt urinals had hygienic benefits and the
smell in the latrines is decreased. Urinals for girls were also being considered for
construction.
Some students in Chitipa District did say that they like the traditional latrine with dirt
platform because if soiled, the mess is absorbed. If the toilet is misused it is more
noticeable with a cement finish. Teachers also felt the value of the traditional latrines
was that children had the opportunity to build them and develop latrine building
skills which could be used in their homes.
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4.1
There were a number of associated issues related to sanitation
promotion design, use and planning
4.1.1
Security:
Two main issues discussed repeatedly were the risk of collapsing latrines and also
separating the school premises from neighboring settlements.
In the peri-urban community of Masasa School, the close proximity to neighboring
settlement has meant that children come into daily contact with strangers who try to
frighten children, often taunting them with threats of witchcraft. The positioning of
some of the latrines is in such away that some children feel unsafe and at risk. As a
result of cases of harassment in the Masasa School, the headmaster has asked
children to go to the latrine in pairs.
The risk of collapsing latrines can originate from rotting wood eaten by termites,
wood damaged by water or sandy loam soils. In Mzuzu, there were reported cases
of children who had nearly fell into the latrines within the last year. In many schools
visited by the sanitation review teams, the latrines had collapsed.
4.1.2
Cleanliness
The issue of use and maintenance of facilities seems to be paramount over
technology types and options. Cleanliness of latrines is a major problem, and as a
result 50% of students do not use latrines. Students feel there should be disciplinary
action for people who misuse facilities.
With few latrines per school, more daily maintenance is needed. This work fell
predominantly on girls. In some cases, girls must clean them more than twice a day.
Two additional considerations come to light. First the time spent by girls to fetch
water from a distance away from schools. Second, the health implications of
frequent contact with unprotected water sources that could increase contraction of
bilharzia and other parasites.
It was noted that among the technology options, the maintenance of traditional
latrines was more. Girls had the smear the mud floors daily and boys repaired the
grass roof and rafters seasonally.
4.1.3
Gender Disparities:
According to sanitation review teams, none of the interviews in the central or
northern region reported any particular problem related to gender disparity.
However, in the analysis of the information presented, there are some gender
differences related to the operation, use and maintenance of sanitation facilities in
schools.
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In just about all schools visited, it was the schoolgirls primarily who cleaned the
latrine. The official rhetoric was that both boys and girls cleaned the latrines, but
with further investigation in most co-ed schools, it was the girls from Standards 3-8.
For example, in Lukali Full Primary School in Rumphi District, girls between standard
five and eight were responsible for cleaning latrines. However, the boys only have to
clean latrines if they misuse it. Therefore, cleaning latrines is relegated to a chore for
girls primarily or a punishment for boys.
Furthermore, girls were given the primary responsibility of fetching water for
cleaning, collecting materials for thatching and materials like leaves for cleaning.
Boys would assist in collecting materials but were primarily responsible for
construction of facilities. This follows the similar social allocation of roles within the
household.
The work of maintaining latrines in school is a heavy responsibility for girls if there
are many users. Sometimes, Standard 3-8 girls are organized up to three times a
day to clean the latrines as in Masasa Primary School, Mzuzu City. In Nkhangira
School, Girls from Form 1-4 clean latrines twice a day drawing water from water
from the borehole each time. Traditional latrines require even more work to keep
clean because of collecting mud and smearing the surfaces, work the girls found
strenuous.
Adolescent girls did not feel that poor sanitation facilities deterred them away from
attending school. It was rather the cultural belief related to menstruation, and that
girls should not move about when they have their periods. When girls attend school
during their menstrual cycle, they appreciate having water nearby the latrines, as
found in hand washing facilities. If there are no latrines at the schools, girls use
neighboring latrines from households in the community.
It was found in some schools that boys preferred using the bush to the latrines,
especially younger boys. It was stated in one school that sensitization on latrine
usage should focus on boys, especially young boys.
Teachers felt that girls are unlikely to use the urinals because of the decreased
privacy for user. As such, adolescent girls are unlikely to use urinals.
4.1.5
Children’s
Designs
recommendations
for
Sanitation
Technology
For the disabled (crippled children), it was felt that pedestals on the latrines would
assist and support them to use the latrine. Separate latrines that are kept clean for
children with disabilities would also be important, since they have to crawl on the
floor. Footrests could be designed to better guide blind students. Gloves could be
given to lame to support themselves while touching the ground. In addition, children
in a school for the handicap felt that rails were important and squat pans.
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All children interviewed felt that an improved latrine with a cement slab facilitates
regular cleaning and maintenance and eventual usage because clean latrines are
likely to be used over dirty or smelly latrines.
The children also added that the latrines should be designed to have adequate light,
which allows for ventilation. Latrines should also have doors to prevent use of the
latrines by outsiders who may dirty the premises and the responsibility falls on the
girls to then clean up the mess. Moreover, children from Rumphi district noted
regarding VIP latrine built by GTZ that even with the blind corners, the user could
be interrupted.
When asked if there was anything that they would change about their current
facilities, the children in Standards 6, 7, and 8 from Malenga Mzoma Full Primary
School, responded that they would prefer the improved latrines with cement floors,
iron roofs and burned bricks because the required less maintenance and was easier
to keep the latrine clean. They also noted that there are no place in the latrine to
properly store tissues (leaves/papers) or ashes.
There were some discrepancy on the size of the drop hole cover. Some children
suggested that drop hole cover sizes should be made smaller. However, reports from
Mtenthera School in Lilongwe District, was that the children felt the latrine size
(approximately 90 cm) and drop hole size (10 cm) were too small. There are
differing opinions among children. When the drop hole is too big, young children do
not use them. Alternatively, if the hole is too small, the area around the drop hole
becomes messy.
Some other design modification suggested were better drains around the latrine and
for aesthetic appeal the walls should be painted.
Teachers feel that improvements in urinal designs were needed to improve drainage,
privacy and greater usage.
4.1.6 Design Modifications
Based on the outcomes of the focus groups and review of the interview guides from
both households and schools, the following points have been highlighted for
consideration in making design modifications to sanitation facilities:
Spatial planning of latrines is very important and often overlooked in sanitation
promotion. Latrines were viewed useful to students because of the close proximity to
classrooms.
Also it was latrines, away from regular supervision by school
authorities, that are often prone to abuse by outsiders who either steal fixtures or
indiscriminately use the latrines. Therefore, beyond the design specification, the
Consultant will be requested to include some guidelines for spatial planning.
Moreover, reduction of smell can be achieved by ensuring VIP latrines face the
direction of the wind, this should form part of the construction guidelines.
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Latrine spacing between girls and boys are important. The girl latrines that are very
close to boy latrines or adjacent to them are often not used by the girls because of
privacy and social factors like shyness. Therefore significant space should be made
between latrines and girls. Under no circumstances should the boys and girls latrines
be in the same block.
The issue of theft in schools is a growing concern and affects the use and
maintenance of facilities. In the designs, the Consultant will be asked to make
modifications to minimize the use of doors, hinges, rafters, tiles and iron sheets.
This will also save overall costs for construction of materials, which are constraints
for communities.
One option proposed is that for latrine blocks only one door, which could be
constructed at the side, and blind corners be placed at each individual latrine. This
would decrease costs and if the door was eventually stolen, the latrines still would
still retain some privacy for the users. See the Lisale Full Primary School,
Mankhanbira, Northern Region Review (page 7/20), as an example.
Where possible, and where no risk of collapse exists and the soil is easy to dig, pit
depths should be increased to a minimum of 20- 25 meters. Depth of pits and
number of pits should be designed for a minimum life span of 10 years assuming
that on average 50-80 students will use that latrine.
The front walls of multi-chamber latrines could be modified and used as part of a
wall to a urinal. This would require adequate drains around the latrine. The
consultant is asked to review the feasibility of coming up with a latrine design, which
incorporates a urinal (for use by girls also) with adequate privacy for users and
suitable drainage. The roof from the latrine could be extended to shield the urinal
users.
The issue of privacy with latrines is continuously stated as being important. However
households often cannot afford doors. The Consultant needs to consider some other
adaptations beyond blind corners, including suggestions of low cost materials or
alternatives that can substitute as doors. For example in Nkhata Bay use of banana
wood could be used.
4.1.8
Disabled Children
One simple modification in the latrine for disabled and young children is to remove
all steps and any lifts. A second is the provision of supports when using the latrines.
Clearly demarcated footrests, squat pans and pedestals were some of the additional
suggestions by children.
4.1.9
Workmanship
In the Southern sanitation review, it was noted in about 90% of the cases, poor
workmanship was observed. This also related to the fact that there were a limited
number of skilled laborers. This requires that the manuals and designs are as user
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friendly and explicit for the lay laborer as possible. Poor latrine construction
diminishes the confidence of children to use the facilities.
Students from Uhoho Junior Primary School from Nkhata Bay District said that
because of the poor construction, some of the children claimed that the san slabs
often shake and are not sturdy. This gives the impression that the latrines are
unsafe and young children do not use the latrine. The Consultant will be asked to
prepare guidelines to ensure that san plats are properly placed on logs to make
them sturdy.
The issue of pools of urine collecting on san plats, or slabs was repeatedly
mentioned. A minor modification is needed in san plat construction to ensure that
excess urine drips down drop hole.
It was noted in one of the focus group discussions in the Southern region that the
external agencies should assist in the construction of the superstructure. In terms of
workmanship, some assistance to schools and households is necessary to ensure
sound and safe structures.
4.1.10
Design-recommendations:
For schools, the Southern Region felt that multi-compartment latrines over a single
pit was the most economical choice and still offered durability, safe, and hygienic to
use and with limited maintenance of smearing
School latrine designs recommended for the catalogue:

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Blair latrine / VIP using cement blocks
Traditional improved pit latrine with dome slab/ san slab, and with a
permanent superstructure.
Double vault latrines
All latrines should have lockable door or restricted access, plastered finish, made of
durable materials, leak proof roofing materials, and smooth floor finish for easy
cleaning. Pedestals for disabled persons and young children would assist in proper
and regular usage. However at the same time, it would require more cleaning.
Household latrine recommended for the catalogue:
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Traditional latrine with san plat, slab or dome slab
Arborloo
Skyloo
Double vault
VIP
Urinals: No recommendations except need to improve privacy and workmanship.
Hand washing facilities for schools:
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In Lilongwe district, although hygiene messages were painted on the walls and
students were encouraged to wash hands, the lack of water to fill 560 litres handwashing tank was a constraint. Therefore hand washing and effective sanitation
could not be achieved
The proposed model for hand washing facilities should be taken from CPAR’s site
visit, which was a small cement tank with hose. There should be one hand washing
facility by each block of latrines. This has four benefits. First, when water is scarce
but in limited supply smaller tanks could be still filled. Second, it does not take a lot
of effort for students to fill tanks. Third, the model/design has direct transfer to the
household with modifications such as using locally made pots as the tanks. Fourthly,
The presence of hand washing facilities close to the latrine promotes the habit of
hand washing after latrine use.
Notes:
The expense for household labor construction in relation to the materials was
relatively high to the total costs. In one focus group, women headed households had
a greater constraint to sanitation because they had to pay laborers to construct their
latrines. In schools, labor is not a constraint because many of the initiatives used
students and school committee members. Instead, the materials and supplies were a
problem because the needed quantities were high in schools. This was even more of
a constraint for the materials that were not locally available. In all of the sites
visited, cement was supplied by an external agency, either the NGO or government.
For households, a big selling point for eco-sanitation designs is the ability to use
manure for fruit trees with a potential economic value.
In many cases, materials from old latrines are recycled to build new latrines. This
practice should be encouraged in light of the high environmental costs of burning
bricks.
In the focus group discussions in the southern region, children had a difficult time
responding to questions related to the improvement of latrine design. This points to
the need for clear and simple designs to assist in making technology choices. It
must be assumed that some of the children may not have had exposure to using a
latrine in their homes. In women’s focus group, women expressed the lack of
choices being offered to them. They would consider other sanitation options such as
the double chamber composting latrine and the dome slab.
There needs to be a greater consultation with schools on the needed technical
designs. In cases, where collapsing was not a problem or not likely, pits were still be
lined. There is an innate fear that latrines will collapse. Lining with bricks is an
economically and environmentally costly option for schools and communities. The
use of soil stabilise block makers are important to decrease the use of burned bricks.
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Lastly, one way to address the poor workmanship is to involve the school committee
in monitoring of the construction to ensure that quality structures are put in place.
School committees should be given orientation and guides for construction so they
know for example mortar mix, design specification, proper placement of doors and
vents and appropriate gradients for drainage. School committee and contractors
should hold a brief preliminary consultation so that communities’ expectations are
incorporated in the designs, especially in the case of disabled children.
5.0
IEC messages for promoting sanitation and hygiene in schools
These are based on the comments that came from respondents about what they
liked most about their latrines. These messages should be directed at a target
audience of school age children.
1. Latrines make school compounds clean. They give the school hold a
higher status. (All standards)
2. Latrines are easier to access than the bush. You do not have to travel
to far to use a latrine. The bushes might harbor snakes and things, so
using a latrine is safer and less scary! (Lower standards)
3. Good latrines control flies and smell (all standards)
4. Latrines decrease disease like cholera and help students stay healthy
(all standards)
5. Latrines offer more privacy than the bush (upper standards/
adolescents)
6. Improved latrines are easier to keep clean than traditional pit latrines.
(Upper standards/ girls)
7. Improved latrines are safer and the risk of collapsing is less, especially
when the pits are lined (all standards)
8. Good latrines are safe for small children to use (all standards,
particularly lower standards)
Messages that should be considered once the latrines have been constructed:
1. Cleaning latrines is everyone’s responsibility. It should also show a
teacher cleaning a latrine, as well as young and old children. Children
clean using mops, rags and water. Boys should be shown fetching
water to fill hand washing facility and cleaning
2. Latrines are safe to use: it should show lined pits and solid
construction
3. Everyone is responsible to keep the latrine in good order and use it
properly.
 It could show an older child assisting a younger child to use the latrine
and putting his/her feet on the foot rests.
 It could show a child replacing the drop hole cover after use.
 It could show a child putting ash in the latrine to decrease smell.
4. Taking care of school property is everyone’s business. Could show a
mischievous child throwing rocks on the tile roof of a latrine and
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breaking it and other angry children around. This should express
unacceptable behavior.
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Section B:
MK 80= 1 US$
Technology
option
Soil/ geological
characteristic
Estimated total
costs
Single vault VIP
latrine: cement
slab, brick and
iron sheet for
roofing
Sandy/ loam soilsdifficult to digNkhata Bay. No risk
of collapsing
MK 8000
-
Clay/ loam-difficult
to dig. No risk of
collapsing
Nkhata Bay
District
Hand washing
facility: cement
tank, hose pipe
on brick base
and soak-away
pit
Nkhata Bay
District
Single vault VIP
with 4 doors in
a line
Nkhata Bay
District
All male
secondary
school. School
latrine ratio:
1:15 including
Estimated
community
contribution
N/a
Strengths (likes)
MK 1,800
N/a
Close proximity to latrine,
easy fill and cleaning. Will
last a long time
Labor:
contractors MK
4,600
N/a
Full privacy when in use,
vent pipes and roof tiles
were used to control heat
Labor MK 650
Total costs for
materials: MK
19, 342
Shortfalls
(Dislikes)
Innovations and
improvements
proposed
Full privacy, and vent
pipe to control flies and
odor
Tiles and bricks will be
reused for another
latrine.
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Cement tank
could be made
bigger for schools.
Adaptations using
local pots can be
made to transfer
technology to
households
Minor repairs
replacement of hinges,
doors, rafters and
painting; vent pipes were
not working to control
smell
Short latrine life span: 5
years
Choice of
materials to
ensure infrequent
replacement e.g.
doors and hinges.
Number of doors
in each facility
should be
decreased to
avoid frequent
repair costs;
quality of
UNICEF-Lilongwe
water closets
School: one
unit of two
vault VIP
latrines
Clay soils—no risk of
collapsing
Total cost
excluding labor
(Contractors):
MK 51,396
MK 15710
(30%)- materials
Pits depth 18-20 feet
deep and expected to last
8-15 years. When full, will
be demolished and fruit
trees planted on site
Operational expenses
include repainting. Reliming, replacement of
rafters, and doors.
Vent pipes did not have
screens
Clay soils- no risk of
collapsing.
Labor
(Contractors)
Mk 11,800
Mk 17878 (20%)materials
Pit depth is 18-20 metres
and expected to last 5-8
years
Operational expenses:
hard broom needed and
detergent for cleaning.
Nkhata Bay
District
School latrine
ratio: 1:60
School: one
unit of 4 single
vault latrines
Nkhata Bay
District
Fairly easy to dig
Total cost:
Mk 90,711
Latrines are
concentrated on one side
of the school; latrines
are close to neighboring
houses.
School latrine
ratio: 1:60
Latrine does not offer full
privacy such that if there
is a user in the first stall,
someone going to the
second stall can see
him/her. Vent pipes were
not topped with
screening
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craftsmanshiptraining of
artisans in proper
construction and
monitoring of
construction; and
tile roofs
One door for
multi-chamber
latrines. If door is
stolen, user is not
in view when
using latrines
Multi-latrines with
one door. Sidewall
facing latrines
could be modified
and used as a
urinal.
UNICEF-Lilongwe
Householdtraditional pit
latrine
Clay/ sand- easy to
dig
Collapsing not a
problem
Mzimba District
Localhousehold/local
contractor
Mk 200
Total cost of
materials: MK
178
To reduce odor, users put
ash and sand after use.
The latrine has a vent
window and open
doorway for good
circulation.
Reoccurring maintenance
is acceptable because
grass, poles and materials
are locally available.
Latrine quite dark and
narrow entrance way.
Operational/
maintenance issues:
grass thatch must be
replaced often and floors
must be smeared
weekly. Rafters and tying
ropes are susceptible to
termite attacks- possibly
replaced every two
years.
Ensure strong
roof, decrease use
of logs (slabs)
Adaptations to
decrease flies (san
plat/slab and
improve
ventilation and
the amount of
light
Latrine is expected to
last only two years.
Household:
Skyloo double
vaults, six
month rotation
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Loam and difficult to
dig soils
Labor: MK 795,
total cost of
materials=
6,402.32
Facility is permanent
Mzimba District
15
Problems with the
amount of flies
Operational/maintenance
expenses: replacement
of grass roof and cement
repairs. Also need
cement for sealing the
back door, replacement
of urine pipe and gloves
for handling urine and
faeces. Urine collection
is difficult and cannot be
handled well by childrenresponsibility of adults,
difficult to find good
containers to collect
urine, poor construction
design no gradient on
the collection tanks and
therefore material does
Urinal in the squat
hole needs a
mesh so that the
pipe cannot be
blocked easily;
needs a means to
control odor
UNICEF-Lilongwe
Household:
ArborlooMzimba
Household:
Arborloo
Mzimba District
Household:
Arborloo
Mzimba District
Sandy soils,
collapsing a problem
especially during the
rainy season
Soils are clay, easy
to dig and deep
down stones are
found. No risk of
collapsing
Soils were sandy
loam and difficult to
dig after one metre
Labor cost= Mk
2250
Latrines are seen
important to household
for accessibility and also
manure for fruit trees.
Slab is easily transferred
to another location.
Wood is preferred for the
superstructure
Cost of
materials= MK
2,540
CCAP= 50% of
total material
costs
Labor cost for
latrine= Mk 620
Total cost for
materials= MK
812.22
CCAP
contribution
51%
Provision of manure,
easily built latrine, and
slab has a long life span
Labor= Mk 620
Total costs of
materials=
822.30
Contribution by
CCAP= 377
46%
School: 2 door
traditional
latrine- Mzimba
District
School Latrine
ratio:
Soils are loamy clay
and prone to
collapsing easily with
VIP. Traditional
latrines do not
collapse
Labor costs: Mk
2050
Total cost of
materials: MK
13,547
not slide back,.
Site is moved oftenevery six months
Community
contribution was
not costed but
provided bricks
for platform and
superstructure
Manure could be used for
agricultural purposes,
depth of latrine hole
shallow and, therefore
easy to dig. Having a
latrine keeps the
household clean and can
be used by visitors.
Superstructure and slab
are moveable
VIPs considered more
attractive, easy to clean
with using mops and
water and does not
require smearing. Roof
did not leak during rainy
season
16
Design plans for
local/ community
builders- artisan
training
Door for privacy
when using a
latrine is crucial
but often not
affordable for
households
consideration of
alternative, low
cost materials for
use as a door
Depth of the
latrine hole (1
metre) could be
more for a longer
life span
Latrine constructed by
MASAF, design
considered poor
(craftsmanship), roof
was not fixed to
superstructure so it was
easily stolen. No vent
Size of the hole
must be modified
depending on the
age group and
increase latrine
size, light and
ventilation.
UNICEF-Lilongwe
1: 60
14 operable
latrines, 12 for
boys and 7 for
girls
School: 2 door
traditional
latrine- Mzimba
District
School Latrine
ratio:
1: 60
14 operable
latrines, 12 for
boys and 7 for
girls
School:
Improved
latrine with san
slab
pipe or cover to control
flies and odor
Soils: sandy and
difficult to dig during
dry season; low risk
of collapsing
Total cost of
materials= Mk
4069, all
provided by the
students
Sandy soils which
easily collapse
Nkhata Bay
District
Latrine ratio:
1:81, no
breakdown
given
School: double
vault VIP
Nkhata Bay
District
Latrine ratio:
1: 103 people
No specific
Labor by
children= Mk
1200
100%
contribution by
students in
building and
provision of
materials
Traditional latrines are
seen as better than
nothing and keeps the
schoolyard tidy. However
not the preferred
technology by girls in
particular because of the
work involved in the
maintenance
Maintenance: Boys
sweep and girls smear
floors, grass to replace
roof were difficult to find
during the dry season
Material costs
provided by
community MK
7940 (60%)
N.B contribution
by NGO was not
fully quantified
and therefore
Structure is permanent
and decomposed matter
will be removed after two
years.
Girls clean the latrines
three times a day and
collect water from a
source over 800 Km
away
Labor not
costed built by
school
committee.
Total cost of
materials: MK
1,296,
Slab supplied
by CPAR (NGO)
Sandy soils, heavy
latrines have a high
risk for collapse
during rains
Labor costs Mk
4820
Built by NGO
Total costs for
materials= Mk
13,350
17
Traditional latrines
should be
improved with a
san slab and
improved roofing
structure.
UNICEF-Lilongwe
breakdown
given
School: urinal
Nkhata Bay
District
would decrease
the overall
community
contribution
N/a
Labor by
students Mk 720
Total cost for
urinal material=
Mk 542
provided by
school
Users could be viewed
easily- lack of privacy.
Craftsmanship was poor
because the students put
it together.
Girls did not use urinals
School: single
vault VIP
Rumphi District
Latrine ratio
1: 83 Boys
1:70 girls
1:9 teachers
Soil is a combination
of clay, sand and
rock. Not easy to dig
and water is often
used to soften soil
before digging.
Collapsing is not a
problem
Labor cost= Mk
2,700 with local
contractor
Total cost of
materials:
Mk 12,411
Two items
provided by GTZ
were not
quantified
Total cost of
materials
supplied by
community= Mk
5100
Approximately:
41%
NB: two items
provided by GTZ
were not
quantified.
Craftsmanship really
good-done by local
builder under the
supervision of GTZ
VIP latrine is well
positioned toward the
wind that decreases odor.
Vent pipe has screens
which prevent flies
18
Improve privacy
of urinals by
taking advantage
of latrine walls
and positions.
Urinals should
come before
latrines.
Separation of
urine from
defecation is an
important means
to decrease smell
of latrines, should
be considered for
girls as well
Craftsmanship of
latrines artisan
training and
positioning of
facilities, in
particular VIP
should be facing
the wind.
Inside latrine,
small ledges or
places for tissues
or putting sanitary
towels are
needed. Currently
no place to put
tissue, only on the
UNICEF-Lilongwe
floor and they can
be soiled.
School: urinal
N/a
Rumphi District
School: Single
Vault Blair
latrine
Rumphi District
Soil is clay loam
down to 50 cm,
thereafter sand.
Collapsing is a
problem at the level
of the sandy soil
Latrine ratio:
1:150
Labor cost= Mk
1,250 urinals
constructed by
boys in schools
Total costs for
materials
supplied by
school and
community was
=MK 1000
Pit was dug by
students and
GTZ paid
contractors to
build structure
100% of
materials
provided by
school and
community
Community
contribution=Mk
16042,
approximately
60%
Urinals should be built of
cement so that they
drain properly
Latrine is a permanent
structure and therefore
roof cannot be blown
away or stolen
Labor cost for
pit latrines Mk
2400
Drainage around the
latrine is a problem.
Stagnant water may lead
to collapse of latrine.
Total cost for
materials= Mk
27,767.00
Household:
improved
latrine with san
plat
Rumphi District
Soils are clay loamy
with some rocks.
Collapsing is not a
problem
Labor cost by
household
owner: Mk 690
Total cost of
materials for
facility was Mk
1777. Rebar and
cement was
Latrine spacing between
boys and girls latrines
are poor. The old pits
have not been closed
and appear as a hazard.
The old pits are being
used a refuse pits.
-
Foot rests are deemed
important to aid children
to properly use adult
latrine
19
Lack of foot rests, no
drop hole covers and
poor drainage
Difficult to find grass and
poles for latrines
Design
modification:
students prefer
painted walls,
doors, drop hole
covers, better air
vents, smaller
drop holes, and
better drains
around the
latrines which
decreases the risk
of collapsing
UNICEF-Lilongwe
Household:
Children’s
latrine: Rumphi
district
School: Single
vault VIP
latrine
Chitipa District
School latrine
ratio:
1=23 boys
1=18 girls
1=3 teachers
Soils are clay loamy
with some rocks.
Collapsing is not a
problem
Soil is clay and
difficult to dig.
Requires picks to
dig. Collapsing is not
a problem
provided by
MoHP (37%)
Labor cost: Mk
230
All provided by
owner
Total cost: Mk
135
Cost of labor:
private
contractors: Mk
15,550
Total cost of
materials all
provided by
DFID= Mk
107,721
Latrine expected
to last 15 years
as it is 15 feet
deep
Children latrine for
children between 2-3
years made of wooden
planks in a dome shape.
Ash placed to reduce flies
and smell
Private contractors built
latrines. Craftsmanship
described as excellent.
Wooden hole cover to
control odor and flies.
Vent pipe, Chimney and
doorway design also
control odor and flies.
Workmanship considered
poor.
Wood covers for drop
hole are often misplaced
by students
An open latrine
for young children
is a good
alternative for
children who are
too small or afraid
to use latrine.
Some modification
could be drop
hole covers and
siting close to
adult latrines to
build practice of
using latrine
regularly.
Consider
designing a drop
hole cover with an
attachment to san
plat to avoid
misplacement or a
wooden style
toilet seat
Adaptations for
disabled children:
potentially raised
brick handles
which guide child
to latrine and
support child
while on latrine.
Raised bricks (3050 cm to avoid
20
UNICEF-Lilongwe
contact on the
ground.
Removable
pedestal for
disabled or young
children
School: hand
washing
facility, tippy
tap/ clay pot
Chitipa District
Cost of labor:
Mk 135
Hand washing facility is
used by most students
Total cost of
materials
provided by
students= Mk
50 for tippy tap
Total cost for
clay pot with
leaky tin=Mk
90.50
School: urinal
Chitipa District
School: Blair
latrine
Chitipa District
School latrine
ratio:
1:17
Soil: clay and
difficult to dig, hard
underlying rock after
one metre
Cost of labor:
Mk 240
Total cost for
urinals provided
by school= Mk
590.60
Private
contractors
identified by
GTZ= MK
3730.00
Girls expressed
willingness to use urinals
Community
contribution= Mk
4915
(approximately
305)
Good ventilation, durable
and roof does not leak
Total costs for
21
Water containers and
poles will have to be
replaced often. The
amount of water held is
small and needs to be
often replenished. When
the water runs out of the
boys’ hand washing
facility they do not fill it
and expect the girls to
fetch water.
Clay pots can easily
break and water drawn
from the clay pots can
be easily contaminated
when there are many
users
User is viewed, lack of
privacy
-
-
UNICEF-Lilongwe
Household:
improved pit
latrine
Karonga
District
Clay loam soils,
difficult to dig and
no risk of collapsing
Household:
Traditional
latrine
Karonga
District
Soil clay, difficult to
dig, no risk of
collapsing
Household:
traditional
latrine with
improved san
slab
Karonga district
Sandy loamy soils,
collapsing is a
problem
Household:
traditional
latrine
Karonga district
materials
15,669
Labor costs= Mk
1860
Total cost of
materials= Mk
1382 Red Cross
provided
cement, rebar
and soft wire
Labor costs: Mk
3950
Labor costs= Mk
2,800
Total costs for
materials= Mk
18,620
Soil is rocky sand,
difficult to dig, yet
collapses easily, area
prone to flooding
Labor= Mk
2,600
Owner provided
approximately Mk
1000 worth of
materials,
cement, rebar
and soft wire
provided by the
Red Cross
-
-
Quality of construction
average, could be
improved
-
-
Offer little privacy. The
availability of poles,
grass and mikambela is a
major problem.
Total costs
provided by
owner=
Mk 17, 820
-
Termites are a huge
problem in the area,
grass; poles are attacked
by termites but are not
easily found.
A packet of sugar
and a pail of
boiled water are
applied to latrine
to control odor, as
well as ashes.
A san slab or
dome slabs should
be offered in
areas where
termite attacks
are high and raw
materials are
expensive.
The cost of logs was Mk
1,200 and water was Mk
10, 500, water is
collected from Lake
Malawi over 3 km away.
Shortage of raw
materials affects
craftsmanship. Major
problem is obtaining
grass, thatch and reeds
Total costs
covered by owner
Total costs for
latrine= Mk
5,170
Highly susceptible to
termite attack
22
A list of
alternative
materials for
latrine
construction
should be
compiled
UNICEF-Lilongwe
School: VIP
latrines
Mzuzu City
Soils: clay, no risk of
collapsing
Total labor
costs= Mk 3,900
Community
contribution=
MK 3320
Durability, strong, secure
Total cost of
materials= Mk
18, 533.50
School latrine
ratio:
Boys- 1:100
Girls- 1:92
Teachers- 1:7
Household:
traditional
latrine with san
slab
Nkhata Bay
District
Rocky with clay
sections.
Household:
double Vault
Kasungu
District
Sand loam
Rock can be broken
fairly easily with
picks, hammer and
chisels
Labor costs= Mk
2,700
(Believed to be
overestimated
between MK
1300-1700
Total costs for
materials= MK
9669.60. CPAR
provided san
slab
Labour MK 1000
Provided by
owner
Superstructure
was supplied by
Plan
International
Poor maintenance of
facility deters use and
cancels any health
benefits of the facility
Operation and
maintenance car oil used
to control flies and smellcostly option.
Life span for double vault
expected to be 10 years
One room is used as a
latrine while the other is
used as a bathroom.
When the first toilet is
filled the hole is shut and
the room becomes a
bathroom while a hole is
open in the former
bathroom to be used as a
latrine.
Combination of bathroom
23
The Superstructure will
need to be repaired
because of the poor
mixture of cement/
mortar
Technology is
considered good
but need to
improve on
footrests to guide
the user to avoid
spilling on the
floor.
UNICEF-Lilongwe
School: Multichamber latrine
-
Structure
provided by
Plan
International
Kasungu
District
School latrine
ratio:
1:46
Boys: 1:46
Girls: 1:45
School: Urinal
Kasungu
District
Boys only= 367
School: Multichamber
Kasungu
District
School latrine
ratio:
16 latrines for
students, eight
for boys and
eight for girls
4 latrines for
teachers
School: hand
washing facility
Kasungu
Labour: -
Labour Mk400
Loam
The water table is
high and soils can
become water
logged
Labour: Mk
15,000
built by a
contractor DFID
Community
contribution not
ascertained
Labour was
contributed by
students; boys
standard 3-8
and latrine does not
require annual
construction of bath
shelter
Proximity to the
homestead
-
-
Latrine expected to last
10 years and design of
latrine is appreciated with
big windows, brick,
mortar and iron sheets
The hand washing
containers has
transferability to the
24
Problems of young
children using the
latrine, they tend to
defecate any where
Problems of boys
urinating every where
and not in the pit
provided
Because there are no
doors it is used by the
public
-
UNICEF-Lilongwe
District
Household:
skyloo
Sandy, loam soils
Salima District
Household:
Arborloo
Salima District
Labour costs:
Mk 1,500
Total cost of
materials= Mk
2,026.75
Sandy soils
Labour costs:
Mk 350
Contribution by
owner 1014
Total cost for
materials= Mk
1795.66
Approximately
56% of costs
A second alternative is
the use of a lined basket
which is removed
periodically (2 metre)
Cement and
rings provided
by Water Aid
Household: clay
pot and tin for
hand
Washing
Salima District
-
Total costs for
two pots and
tin: Mk 71.50
community. Women can
make clay pots and use
old plastic containers
Latrine is suitable in rocky
and hard to dig areas.
However suitability in
sandy soils is also
observed
Permanent facility
Cheap source of manure
Makes having a latrine in
difficult geographical
areas possible
Pedestal seat adaptation
makes using facility
easier.
Dome slab, wire rings
and drum to collect
manure, permanent
latrine
100%
Owner found it easier and
cheaper to construct
latrine, depth of pit
shallow, therefore
decrease risk of collapse
-
25
Drawback is the need to
use ash and dirt, which
may not happen, in
schools. It is a good type
of latrine when there a
fewer users.
Grass thatch door
well made and is
a low cost
alternative to
ensuring privacy
instead of wooden
doors
Need to use ash to
decrease smell.
Fills up quickly
Removable pit
lining is an
alternative to the
skyloo and
traditional
arborloo, ideal
where collapsing
poses a problem
Owner would
recommend the size of
the dome slab (Diameter
80 cm, thickness 5 cm)
be made bigger, also
would consider a deeper
pit.
Tin and pot system could
lead to possible
contamination of water
source.
UNICEF-Lilongwe
School: Multichamber with
one vent pipe
Sandy on top with
hard underlying soils
beneath
Total cost of
materials= Mk
264,110.00
Financial and
technical
assistance
provided by
Interaide
Lilongwe
District
School latrine
ratio:
1:110 students
1:10 teachers
School: hand
washing
facility- cement
tank, three taps
Labour costs=
Mk 5,170
-
Lilongwe
District
Household:
Traditional pit
latrine with san
plat
Ntcheu District
Stable soils
Household
hand washing
facility:
Suspended pot
with tin can
and soak away
pit
-
Contribution by
community was
bricks, sand,
stone not
quantified
Toilets are used as public
toilets
Size of drop hole and
size of latrine should be
increased.
Each class should have
their own latrine
For effective sanitation,
children felt they require
borehole, bathroom,
hostels, urinals for both
girls and boys
Water is a constraint so
there was no water in
hand washing facility
Financial and
technical
assistance
provided by
Interaide
Labour costs:
Mk 725
Total cost of
materials= Mk
1260
Labour costs=
Mk 40
To completely fill tank
requires 28 pails of
water, approximately
560 litres
Latrine expected to last
for 20 years with a family
of seven. It was built in
1989
Hand wash facility is easy
to use by the youngest
members of the family
Total cost of
materials=Mk
237.50
26
Must be filled often, as it
holds only 1.8 litres of
water.
UNICEF-Lilongwe
Ntcheu district
School:
traditional and
Improved pit
latrine with san
plat
Stony areas
Total cost of
materials= Mk
1036.92
Ntcheu District
School latrine
ratio:
Boys- 1:50
Girls- 1:77
School: rain fed
hand wash
container large
cement tank
Ntcheu District
School: urinal
-
-
Boys only
Ntcheu District
Household:
Dome slab
improved pit
latrine
Labour: Mk
1100
100% provided
by school with
the exception of
the cement Mk
85.00 provided
by Concern
Universal
Concern
Universal
provided the
cement for san
plat
All materials and
labour provided
by Concern
Universal
Labour costs:
Approximately
Mk 200
Total materials:
Mk 542
Water logged, high
risk of collapsing
Labour costs:
Mk 600
Total materials:
Mk: 1305
70% of materials
provided by
owner
Demonstration of san plat
casting was done at the
school. Facility was
similar to that children
would use at their homes.
Labour intensive because
of smearing of mud
floors
Two tanks: one which
collects rain water and
other which is hand wash
facility
Children find that filling
large hand wash tanks is
labour intensive
-
Grass thatch structure
offers full privacy and is
made of locally available
materials.
-
-
The provision of the slab
has made cleaning easier
-
-
Labour reduced for
smearing
Salima District
Cement
provided by
Save-theChildren Fund
Mk 375
27
UNICEF-Lilongwe
School tertiary:
Modifications of
latrines for
disabled
Chiradzulu
District
Household:
Mpemba:
Improved pit
latrine, round
Mangochi
District
Household:
Mpemba: Hand
washing facility
clay pot and
cup
Mangochi
District
Household:
Makunje village
VIP Blair latrine
6 bag type
Blantyre District
Sandy loam soils
subject to collapsing
Total cost for
materials: Mk
4481.75
Total costs for
labor: Mk 960
Total cost from
Community for
materials: Mk
2075
Frequent replacement of
roof materials, e.g.
polythene sheet and
grass thatch.
No full privacy
N/A
Purchased by
owner Mk 70
MK 70
Needs to be filled about
twice a day, water point
with handpump is
approximately 100
metres away.
Loamy, sandy soils
followed by red hard
soils with sandy soil
bedrock at the
bottom
Total costs for
materials =
MK 6763.50
Total cost of
materials: Mk
2086 (31%)
Estimate cost of
labor ( private
contractor and
household)= MK
3200
Latrine does not require
major maintenance, save
plastering of walls and
removal of vegetation
growths on concrete roof.
Problems related to the
maintenance of the
facility are the rising
water table and the need
to fetch water from long
distances
Roof slab was not well
molded
Constructed
with assistance
from Malawi
Freshwater
28
Traditional clay
pot holds 10 litres
and cup used
primarily for anal
cleansing
UNICEF-Lilongwe
School:
Nkholongo
Improved pit
latrine with
dome slab
Sandy soils on top
1.5 metres below
loamy, slightly hard
formation
Total costs of
materials =
MK 891.25
Latrines were
built by the
children
Total cost of
labor = ?
School committee
material
contribution
677.5
(approximately
76%)
Chikwawa
District
Latrine ratio:
1 latrine = 32
boys
1 latrine = 60
girls
School:
Nkholongo
Hand washing
facility-cement
tank
Chikwawa
District
N/A
Total cost for
materials =
Mk 7140
Total costs for
materials by
school committee
Mk 2947 (41%)
In school stealing of the
drop hole covers and
termites are a problem.
Drop hole covers are the
only mechanisms used to
control smell and flies.
No door or grass fence in
front of latrines- offers
poor privacy.
Gravel put inside tank to
reduce water flow.
Because facility was built
by children- the
workmanship was
considered poor and
below average
Taps have been replaced
twice because of theft
Cleaning of the tanks
requires someone to go
into a small opening. It is
not done regularly
because of the difficulty
in cleaning tank.
Total cost for
labor = ?
Constructed by
School
Committee with
assistance by
Concern
Universal
Cockroaches were seen
inside tank
Cement cover for the
hand washing tank is
very heavy and not easy
to replace after filled
29
UNICEF-Lilongwe
School: VIP (4
in 1) communal
vent pipe
Chiradzulu
District
Overall latrine
ratio = 1:54
School:
Hand washing
facility: two
pails on a
wooden rack
Loam soils at the top
and red hard soils
below 2 metres deep
N/A
No information
of costs of
materials/
supplies
Block was built
by government
contractors
Constructed by
students made
up of poles and
sisal
No community
contribution
Expected life span is 15
years
Roof has blown off by
wind
Trespassers often use
latrine, with disregards
to cleanliness
Plastic pails and
cups provided by
school
committee:
Mk 200
Water is collected three
times a day.
Chiradzulu
District
30
-
UNICEF-Lilongwe
31