Health and Life Sciences
Department of Sports, Exercise and Rehabilitation
REHABILITATION AND BIOMECHANICS IN HEALTH AND CLINICAL POPULATIONS
Dr Nick Caplan
Title: Potentiating mechanisms in chronic widespread pain conditions: Implications for rehabilitation
approaches
Background: Chronic musculoskeletal and widespread pain conditions such as fibromyalgia are
prevalent and costly to the economy (Hauser et al 2009). They are characterised by chronic
widespread pain and debilitating fatigue often associated with other symptoms ( Wolfe et al 2010).
Affected individuals experience poor physical and social functioning and considerable distress,
though despite this, the conditions are not well understood in terms of their pathophysiology. Some
studies have suggested an aetiological/perpetuating role of stress mechanisms involving the HPA
axis. Thus consequent clinical management is often difficult with heterogeneous interventions
employed ( Sim and Adams 2002, Cuesta Vargas and Adams 2011) with variable outcomes. Patients
often report considerable dissatisfaction with extant services which are often patchy and unavailable
to this group (Hardy-Pickering and Adams 2007). In line with current governmental initiatives it is
necessary to consult and consider the view of patients in developing best evidence to inform best
practice.
This study aims to capture service users and service providers views and experiences and their
current practice. As the pathophysiology is poorly understood with stress implicated as a potential
mediating factor, this study will also test a novel hypothesis of aetiological/perpetuating factors in
fibromyalgia (CWP) and consequences for day to day functioning by using a combination of bespoke
ambulatory and laboratory techniques. This will allow the development of more suitable and/ or
adjuvant interventions/approaches for the condition.
Summary of proposed studies: The study will take place in three phases
Phase 1: Qualitative approach: Semi-structured interviews with people with fibromyalgia
Phase 2: Survey of pain management and rheumatology clinics in the UK regarding current practice,
attitudes and beliefs
Phase 3: Participants will undergo an assessment including ambulatory measurement of
psychobiological indices and a stress testing protocol in the laboratory situation. These protocols
have previously been developed by one of the supervisory team (MW).
Distinctiveness of Research / Original Contribution to Knowledge
The series of studies are unique on many levels. Service users and service providers views have not
hitherto been explored and there is no clear pathway with service availability highly variable
between regions. This study will describe and ascertain current practice in the UK. Further the study
will explore potentiating mechanisms of the condition which have not yet been fully elucidated
The proposed PhD programme will extend the application of our current expertise in the areas of
musculoskeletal conditions and psychobiological assessments. Moreover, this programme of work
represents an extremely novel inter-disciplinary collaboration.
The proposed PhD programme is in line with governmental priorities for long term health conditions
and also a strategic area UK research charities and NIHR funding.
Furthermore, this would be a collaborative venture with supervision also provided by Dr David
Walker, consultant rheumatologist.
Title: Differences in movement patterns and movement recognition in dyskinetic (e.g. Parkinsons)
and hyperkinetic (e.g. schizophrenia) populations
Background: Various pathological conditions have led researchers to conclude that damage or
disruption to the basal ganglia can be associated with a broad range of movement abnormalities
ranging from uncontrollable excessive movements (hyperkinesia) to a marked lack of movement
(hypokinesia) Example populations relevant to this brain region include people with Parkinson’s
disease who display delayed execution and slowness of movement, increased muscle tone, ‘freezing’
(akinesia), inability to execute simultaneous or sequential movements, postural instability, and
tremor at rest. People with Parkinson’s who are receiving L-dopa medication for prolonged periods
of time can become dyskinetic, showing heightened levels of involuntary movements. In
schizophrenia however, people are often hyperkinetic, showing excessive movements, especially of
the limbs, and also displaying facial tics and grimaces suggestive of basal ganglia pathology. . The
aim of this PhD is to explore how movement patterns are altered in fine and gross motor skills
between two such populations. It will make use of state of the art 3D motion analysis and
electromyographic systems.
Title: The impact of physical activity, immune system and nutritional status on post-operative
recovery in older people
Background: The aim of this thesis is to explore the effect of UK Physical Activity Guidelines (2011)
on inflammation, immune function and nutrition/appetite in both healthy and hip replacement
patients. During the programme of studies we will examine the relationship between inflammatory
cytokines, cortisol/DHEA ratio, appetite regulatory hormones in order to enhance understanding of
the coupling of metabolic status with inflammation and innate immune function on recovery from
surgery in the elderly.
Study 1 – The effect of physical activity on inflammation, immune function and appetite regulation in
healthy elderly.
Study 2 – 1) characterisation of patients (nutritional and exercise status) prior to surgery 2)
Preliminary inflammation, immune function and appetite hormone data collection from elderly hip
replacement patients pre- and post-surgery
Study 3 – The effect of a 6-week pre-operative exercise program / feeding program on postoperative recovery in elderly hip replacement patients.
Distinctiveness of Research / Original Contribution to Knowledge
The series of studies are unique on many levels. To date, research has yet to examine the effect of
exercise guidelines, rather than individual modes of physical activity on inflammation, immune
function or appetite regulation. Significantly, studies have yet to examine the effect of exercise on
cortisol: DHEA ratio and appetite regulatory hormones in the elderly and following surgery.
Combining three areas, in order to ascertain a clearer understanding of the coupling of metabolic
status with inflammation and innate immune function, also has yet to be undertaken.
Whilst pre-hip replacement physiotherapy programs have been shown to slightly improve postoperative physical function and mobility (Ackerman & Bennell, 2004), studies have not yet examined
the potential of pre-op exercise to enhance recovery through modulation of appetite, inflammatory
and immunological biomarkers
In summary, results could indicate novel, cost-effective methods of improving surgical outcomes in
the elderly, whilst also proving significant for the wider elderly population health.
How would recruitment of a student, in this subject area, align with the Faculty’s Research Plan?
The proposed PhD programme will extend the application of our current departmental expertise in
exercise prescription, inflammation, nutrition and appetite regulation to the elderly pre and postoperative population. Of significance, this proposed PhD programme is in line with one of the key
governmental grand challenges and also a strategic area for the BBSRC, “Ageing research: lifelong
health and wellbeing “ and data from these studies would support future proposals to UK research
councils. Furthermore, this would be a collaborative venture with supervision also provided by Mr
Mike Reed, consultant orthopaedic surgeon within the Northumbria NHS Trust; funding towards
consumables will be provided by Mr Reed.
Title: Biomechanical investigation into factors that influence patellar instability in the knee
Background: A range of factors have been proposed to contribute to patellar instability in the knee.
These factors include, for example, the quadriceps angle (Q angle), femoral neck anteversion,
external tibial torsion, tibial tuberosity-trochlear groove distance (TT-TG), patellar tilt and trochlear
depth. Previous research has suggested that an increase in Q angle will increase the force acting to
displace the patella laterally. Similarly, an increased TT-TG distance has been reported to be linked
to patellar instability. In our recent research, we have brought the predictive strength of these two
measures into question, as we observed reductions in Q angle as TT-TG increased. Similarly, we
have also investigated lower limb alignments in patients with unilateral patellar instability, finding no
difference in skeletal alignment between the symptomatic (unstable) and asymptomatic knees, in
terms of TT-TG, femoral neck anteversion and external tibial torsion. We believe, therefore, that a
much more complex interplay between these and other factors is what contributes to the likelihood
of the patellar dislocating. This project will use finite element modelling of the knee joint, in
combination with clinical data from our research collaborators at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital
(Gateshead) relating to knee joint instability, to determine the relative contributions of skeletal
alignments to instability in the knee.
Title: Rehabilitation for lumbopelvic muscular deconditioning on Earth and in space
Background: The local muscles of the lumbopelvic region are known to be atrophied and
dysfunctional in people with low back pain. Atrophy of these muscles is also seen following long
term bed rest and exposure to microgravity. Current therapeutic interventions to combat this
deconditioning of the lumbopelvic musculature tend to focus on relatively static exercises that are
not related well to functional daily activities. In our recent research, we have demonstrated that a
new functional readaptive exercise device successfully recruits key lumbopelvic muscles, shows
improved stability of the lumbopelvic region compared to walking, which could promote optimal
muscle activity for rehabilitation of these muscles, and also shows muscle recruitment patterns that
are conducive to their rehabilitation. The focus of this PhD project is to explore the role of the
functional readaptive exercise device as an intervention to improve muscle function for
rehabilitation and prevention. This project will complement currently ongoing research which we
are conducting in collaboration with the Crew Medical Support Office at the European Astronaut
Centre and the German Space Agency.
Title: Acute and chronic adaptations to running barefoot.
Project description:
Evolutionary evidence suggests that the human form was shaped by the demands of distance
running. From this perspective, and with running shoes being a very recent invention, it is logical to
assume that barefoot running must be innately injury preventative and economical. Our hypothesis
is that the sensitivity of the plantar surface of the foot evolved to ensure minimal impact through
altered gait patterns that also make use of elastic structures in the lower limb hence reducing injury
risk and energy cost.
A recent publication in Nature reported substantially reduced peak-impact force and rates of loading
(factors related to running injury) in habitual-barefoot versus habitually-shod runners and estimated
(from joint angle data) that barefoot runners would use less energy. Since this publication, we and
others have demonstrated a reduction in energy cost of running using direct measurement. Work
from our group recently submitted to Journal of Sports Sciences reported a novel finding that the
economy benefits of running barefoot appeared mostly in those with a particular foot-strike pattern
i.e. those changing from a rear-foot strike in shoes to a mid/forefoot strike when barefoot. This
raises interesting questions about whether the reported and theorised benefits of running barefoot
are simply related to a change in technique and not necessarily the barefoot condition itself. The
proposed programme of research aims to explore the plantar-sensory-feedback-loop hypothesis
related to impact-avoidance reflexes in the legs and how this relates to acute kinematic and kinetic
adaptations to going barefoot where plantar sensation is much increased. Further, we plan to
undertake a unique exploration of acute and chronic adaptations to barefoot locomotion by
accounting for and manipulating habitual foot-strike patterns.
Project Outline:
The objectives of the programme of research are to:
1. Examine the validity of the plantar-sensory feedback loop hypothesis as an explanation of
documented gait alterations and reductions in peak-impact force when running barefoot.
2. Explore acute adaptations to running barefoot in habitually shod runners with different
habitual foot-strike patterns with a focus on factors linked to running-related injury.
3. Examine chronic adaptations in physiological and mechanical factors related to running
performance and injury in response to barefoot training while manipulating and controlling
for habitual foot-strike patterns.
EXERCISE, NUTRITION AND IMMUNOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE
Dr Paula Ansley
Title: The effects of milk as a recovery drink following exercise on subsequent appetite, energy
intake and cognitive performance in female recreational exercisers
Background: Milk is a nutrient-dense food that contains high quality proteins, carbohydrates (CHO)
and electrolytes. Milk contains casein and whey proteins in a ratio of 3:1 which results in a slow
digestion and absorption of these proteins and therefore a sustained elevation of blood amino acid
concentrations (Bos, Metges et al. 2003). These characteristics theoretically make milk an excellent
recovery drink to consume following resistance training and endurance exercise. The combination of
CHO and protein in milk provides the substrate for rapid muscle glycogen resynthesis following
exercise and studies have reported a greater restoration of exercise capacity following the ingestion
of a milk-based drink compared to commercially available CHO solution (Karp, Johnston et al. 2006;
Thomas, Morris et al. 2009). Further work from our laboratory has shown that milk can alleviate the
negative effects of exercise induced muscle damage post-exercise (Cockburn, Hayes et al. 2008;
Cockburn, Stevenson et al. 2010) and combining milk intake with resistance exercise has been shown
to enhance gains in muscle mass in young men (Hartman, Tang et al. 2007; Wilkinson, Tarnopolsky
et al. 2007) and women (Josse, Tang et al. 2010). Milk has also been shown to have a strong
satiating power, probably due to the protein composition of the drink. In a recent study, Dove et al
(Dove, Hodgson et al. 2009) showed that consumption of milk at breakfast in comparison to a fruit
drink led to increased perception of satiety and a decreased energy intake at a subsequent meal in
overweight men and women.
It is therefore apparent that milk is an excellent recovery drink to consume following exercise which
may also suppress appetite and therefore potentially help to achieve a negative energy balance.
Many individuals, particularly women, exercise on a regular basis for weight loss or weight
maintenance purposes and therefore milk could be an ideal post-exercise drink to consume. There is
little research available on the effects of nutritional interventions on recovery from exercise in
recreational exercisers, particularly women. The research that has been carried out on milk within
sports nutrition has mostly been carried out in trained male participants. This is surprising as a large
proportion of the population will exercise recreationally for weight loss or weight maintenance
purposes and therefore the proposed research has wider health implications for the general
population. It is also possible that milk intake may have a positive impact on cognition and mood
(Jones, Sunram-Lea et al. 2006). A post-exercise drink that facilitates recovery improves satiety and
helps to maintain concentration throughout the afternoon would be ideal for the female
recreational exerciser.
Indeed, following a recent pilot study conducted here at Northumbria, we have identified reductions
in subjective appetite and energy intake in female recreational exercisers when skimmed milk was
consumed following 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise, as opposed to fruit juice. These
initial findings provide an extremely strong rationale for this work to be advanced by exploring more
objective measures of appetite, such as the anorexigenic hormone active GLP-1 and the orexigenic
hormone acylated ghrelin, to establish the mechanistic link between milk consumption post exercise
and appetite regulation. Therefore, the aim of the proposed PhD programme of studies is to
investigate the effect of consuming milk as a recovery drink following moderate intensity exercise on
subsequent appetite, energy intake and cognitive performance in recreationally active females.
Title: Effect of functional foods on exercise recovery
Background: Several natural food components have been shown to exert physiological effects that
may be beneficial to human performance. In particular, the effects of such ‘functional foods’ on
recovery from exercise have received attention in recent years with promising results. Investigating
exercise paradigms provides a useful tool to examine the impact of these interventions on
temporarily induced muscle pain, inflammation, oxidative stress and recovery of muscle function
which could be applied to clinical populations as an adjunct therapeutic tool.
This PhD studentship will investigate the effect of consuming novel functional foods during recovery
from exercise on metabolism and performance in humans. The studies will expand on our previous
research carried out on the effect of functional foods such tart cherries, milk and beetroot but there
will be scope to investigate different populations and different exercise paradigms. The projects will
use a range of different techniques to assess the metabolic effects of functional foods consumed
during recovery from exercise and cognitive, physiological and physical performance will be
investigated. The studies will help to inform the food industry regarding novel applications of such
functional foods within sport and exercise nutrition and also the potential therapeutic benefits to
clinical populations.
Title: The impact of exercise on the epigenome: paving the way to healthy ageing.
The sedentary lifestyle that our society currently enjoys comes with a considerable cost to both the
health of the individual and the national economy. The molecular mechanisms underlying
physiological changes that result from physical activity are an on-going area of investigation.
However it is possible that the impact of physical activity may alter the function of genes. Recent
research from our laboratory indicates a single bout of exercise can alter the epigenome through
mediating inflammatory markers, namely IL-6, however the impact of exercise training on the
epigenome has not been investigated. In this series of studies, we will be implementing a
programme of exercise training in healthy, sedentary individuals that is designed to follow the new
UK Physical Activity Guidelines. We will determine if this programme of exercise, can alter DNA
methylation and therefore turn off key inflammatory genes which when expressed are associated
with the development of complex lifestyle-associated diseases that are particularly prevalent in the
elderly. This study will allow us to explore the interaction between physical activity and expression
of inflammatory proteins in sedentary individuals. In addition we will identify other genes whose
function is altered by changes in DNA methylation as a result of increased physical activity.
Understanding the mechanisms by which exercise may influence the epigenome and inflammatory
gene regulation could ultimately lead to prevention or indeed, the reversal of common lifestyle
associated diseases thus improving health in ageing and reducing the financial burden of life-style
related disease on the UK economy. Therefore, this programme of work, will provide pilot data to
support applications to UK Research councils in line with the Governmental Grand Challenges:
“Lifelong health and wellbeing”
Title: Continuous glucose monitoring to assess the effect of type and amount of dietary
carbohydrate in the diet on 24 glucose profiles in overweight, insulin resistant men
Background: Postprandial hyperglycaemia induces prolonged hyperinsulinaemia which is a risk
factor for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Both the amount and type of carbohydrate included in the diet
can significantly influence the degree of postprandial hyperglycaemia and hyperinsulinemia. The
inclusion of low glycaemic index (GI) carbohydrates in a meal has repeatedly been shown to reduce
postprandial hyperglycaemia after a meal and also after a second meal (‘second meal effect’).
However, it is unclear whether the effects of low GI carbohydrates persist longer than a second meal
effect and whether they can influence glycaemic control for the rest of the day and night. Previous
research has focussed on acute laboratory –based studies in a very controlled environment
therefore free-living data is lacking. Continuous glucose monitoring systems (CGMS) allow glucose to
be measured in a free –living environment for periods of up to 7 days and therefore provide
insightful data on glucose profiles and the effects that habitual food intake and activity have on
glucose metabolism.
This PhD programme will use CGMS technology to investigate the effects of the amount and type of
carbohydrates included in the diet on glucose profiles over a 24 hour period (with and without
exercise) in overweight, insulin resistant men. This series of studies will provide valuable data on the
benefits of consuming low GI carbohydrates in the diet in the prevention of type 2 diabetes and
other metabolic disorders. The studies will also help to provide practical recommendations to both
individuals and the food industry on the most effective way to incorporate carbohydrates in the diet.
NEUROMUSCULAR PHYSIOLOGY: EXERCISE AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE
Dr Glyn Howatson
Title: Maximising the effects and understanding the mechanisms of resistance exercise to reduce the
loss of function during limb immobilization
Background: Single limb immobilisation frequently occurs resulting from trauma, stroke, surgical
procedures, fractures and soft tissue injuries. This immobilisation results in significant reductions in
muscle size and function. We know that chronic practice with voluntary, electrically stimulated and
imagined contractions can increase task skill and the strength of a trained and, intriguingly, an
untrained muscle in the opposite limb of healthy adults. This phenomenon is known as crosseducation and it seems likely that neural mechanisms, which are unknown, mediate this response
because it occurs in the absence of muscle growth. Additionally, the role of a mirror in the
resistance exercise training process has been suggested to further improve the benefits of crosseducation and thereby increase the efficacy of the intervention.
Preliminary data address critical, but so far unexplored behavioural aspects of cross-education such
as, a) the time course; b) the role of limb dominance; and c) the role of mirror activity in crosseducation. Furthermore, it has recently been proposed that an increased brain activity may be
responsible for the maintenance of strength and muscle size in an immobilised limb during crosseducation; this however, requires further investigation. Using state-of the-art neurophysiological
techniques such as transcranial magnetic brain stimulation, we would evaluate the efficacy of using
a mirror in conjunction with unilateral strength training and study the efficacy in the untrained limb.
The application of such an intervention is not routinely used during rehabilitation and could
attenuate the reductions in muscle function thereby improving patient treatment and care.
Title: The use of resistance exercise as a therapeutic agent to improve glycaemic control in patients
with Type 1 diabetes
Background: The role of resistance training as a method to improve glycaemic control in type 1
diabetes patients is unclear. This studentship will examine both the acute and chronic responses of
Type 1 diabetes patients to resistance exercise.
At present, Diabetes UK currently recommend that type 1 diabetes patients regularly engage in
exercise for benefits such as increased insulin sensitivity and improved cardiovascular health
(http://www.diabetes.org.uk/MyLife-YoungAdults/Sport-and-physical-activity/Benefits-of-physicalactivity/). However, there is a conflicting body of literature with regards the effectiveness of exercise
on patient glycaemic control (HbA1c – the number one clinical marker for the treatment of
diabetes); with evidence of improvements, no change, or indeed a worsening of glycaemic control
with exercise training (for review see Chimen et al., 2012). It has been suggested that a lack of
knowledge pertaining to the blood glucose responses of patients to different modalities of exercise
may contribute to the disparity in the literature regarding the effectiveness of exercise in improving
glycaemic control in this population (Yardley et al., 2012).
Recent evidence suggests that to keep patient populations regularly engaging in exercise, and
avoiding dropout, resistance exercise should be considered due to a greater level of enjoyment.
However, within the literature there is very limited data which has examined the blood glucose
responses to this form of exercise in type 1 diabetes patients, with the vast majority of literature
focusing on aerobic based exercise. Indeed, we have carried out clinical trials which have shown that
planning aerobic exercise requires modification of insulin dose (e.g. Campbell et al., in press) and
carbohydrate ingestion (e.g. West et al., 2011). At present, there are no such data or guidelines
available for people with type 1 diabetes who wish to engage in regular resistance training.
Therefore the aim of this studentship will be to make novel contributions to the existing literature
regarding acute and chronic bouts resistance exercise in type 1 diabetes patients using innovative
cross-discipline (medicine and exercise physiology) techniques. Moreover, the studentship will aim
to produce guidelines relating to adjusting insulin dose and diet that will be of use to diabetes care
staff when advising patients about managing blood glucose when performing resistance exercise.
Furthermore, and most importantly, the studentship will examine if employing these guidelines can
aid in improving long-term glycaemic control when engaging in a supervised resistance training
programme.
Significance & Impact
Dr. Daniel West has a recent and proven track record of work in Type 1 diabetes and exercise. The
work has resulted in recent outputs in prestigious journals such as Diabetes Care (Impact Factor:
8.1) and Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise (Impact Factor: 4.1), and thus, likely to offer
considerable benefit to future REF submissions and institute reputation. Moreover, this work is
important to grow the clinical research activity of Northumbria University, which will contribute to
future charity and council funding body grant success.
References
-Chimen, M., Kennedy, A., Nirantharakumar, K., Pang, TT., Andrews, R. & Nanendran, P. (2012).
What are the health benefits of physical activity in type 1 diabetes mellitus. A literature review.
Diabetologia, 55, 542, 551.
-West, DJ., Morton, RD., Stephens, JW., Bain, SC., Kilduff, LP., Luzio, S., Still, R. and Bracken, RM.
(2011). Isomaltulose improves post-exercise glycemia by reducing CHO oxidation in T1DM. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43, 204-210.
-Campbell, MD., Walker, M., Trenell, M., Stevenson, E.J., Bracken, R.M., Bain, S.C. & West, D.J. Large
pre- and post-exercise rapid-acting insulin reductions prevent early, but not late-onset
hypoglycaemia in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care.
-Yardley, J. E., Kenny, G.P., Perkins, B.A., Riddell, M.C., Malcom, J., Boulay, P., Khandwala, F., Sigal,
R.J. (2012). Effects of performing resistance exercise before or after aerobic exercise on glycemia in
type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 35, 669 – 675.
Title: The “extra-time” period in soccer: Factors influencing performance and physiological
responses
Background: In knock-out tournaments, and when scores are equal at the end of specific soccer
matches, two additional 15 min periods of play may be required to determine the outcome of the
game. Non-substituted players may therefore be required to participate in at least 120 min of
soccer-specific exercise with the possibility of also being involved in a penalty shootout thereafter.
Although, the physiological and performance responses to the normal duration of soccer match-play
have been extensively researched, very little information exists to characterise the physiological and
performance responses associated with undertaking an extra 30 min of soccer-specific exercise. This
is somewhat surprising considering the role that this additional period of play has in determining
success in tournament scenarios.
Match-related fatigue has been proposed to explain the reduction in performance consistently
observed in soccer players during the latter stages of match-play. Notably, in the last quarter of a
soccer match the greatest number of goals are conceded and injury risk is elevated; therefore, it
appears that match-related fatigue may be related to performance. However, this supposition has
not been investigated when 120 min as opposed to 90 min of soccer-specific exercise is performed.
Similarly, although specific strategies are commonly advocated to attenuate transient reductions in
performance throughout the normal duration (i.e., 90 min) of match-play (e.g., carbohydrateelectrolyte supplementation, high intensity training interventions etc.), the efficacy of such
strategies remain to be determined when the extra-time period is played.
Therefore, this proposal aims to investigate the physiological and performance responses to the
extra-time period in soccer players (study one) and the efficacy of specific strategies aiming to
attenuate the effects of match-related fatigue when the extra-time period is played (studies two and
three). Given popularity of the sport, the impact of findings from soccer research is relatively widereaching. Moreover, the novelty of this series of studies, combined with the expertise of the
supervisory team and the facilities already in-situ within the Faculty of Health and Life Sciences will
ensure that the publications derived from this proposed PhD project are able to be submitted to the
Research Excellence Framework beyond 2014. Additionally, the principle supervisor is an early
career researcher.
Title: The neurophysiological responses and adaptation to resistance exercise: implications and
applications for healthy and neurologically challenged adult humans
Background: It is well documented that loss of strength and muscle mass during aging, fatigue or
prolonged bed-rest/limb disuse, as well as neuropathological disorders can have profound effects on
functional behaviour of the musculoskeletal system. These effects may include inability to do simple
everyday functions, such as getting up from a chair, to excessive tremor or complete loss of mobility.
Much has been made of how muscular changes might be involved in increasing muscle mass and
hence restoring strength/function following long-term strength training. Recent studies have
suggested sensory and motor neural changes may occur prior to morphological muscular adaptation
with shorter term training, though the changes reported are confusing. These confusions appear to
be associated to the techniques used to assess sensory and motor pathways, as well as the type,
amount and duration of the ‘short term’ training protocol used. Therefore, to understand how
training protocols may be functionally beneficial to varying population groups, healthy or
neurologically challenged, it is important to investigate how these protocols affect the nervous
system using standardised formats of assessment for sensory and motor pathways.
The aims of this PhD study programme are:
1. Evaluation of the neurophysiological variables that can effectively be used in assessing
sensory and motor function in normal and fatigued states.
2. Elucidate the mechanisms underpinning both sensory and motor pathways in normal, nonpathological, individuals following strength training.
3. Benefits of strength training protocols on neurologically challenged individuals in improving
motor function and resistance to fatigue.
Title: Quantifying and prescribing exercise
Background: In order for exercise prescription to be optimal it should be based upon scientific
principles and an understanding of the dose-response nature of the methods employed. Myburgh
(2003) questioned the extent to which exercise programmes are based upon scientific evidence.
Acute bouts of exercise stimulate adaptations, that is to say they have a positive effect on an
individual’s functional capability. Each acute bout of exercise also generates a transient level of
fatigue, or ephemeral negative influence on functional capability. As these acute bouts of exercise
are accumulated so too are the positive and negative effects on functional capability. In terms of
optimising adaptations, there is a cost benefit relationship associated with the effects of exercise on
functional capability (Calvert et al 1975). An insufficient exercise load will not stimulate adequate
adaptation whereas an excessive exercise load impairs performance and is detrimental to the health
of an athlete (Fry et al.1991; Kuipers and Keizer 1988; Lehmann et al.1993). Quantifying the positive
and negative effects would allow the dose-response nature of exercise and subsequent adaptation
to be examined.
The acute exercise load has been calculated through a number of different methods (Borrenson and
Lambert 2009) which are predominantly based on heart rate. The use of heart rate precludes
quantifying sprint or predominately anaerobic activities. Recently, we (Hayes and Quinn 2009) have
devised a quantification method that accounts for aerobic and anaerobic activity. The proposed PhD
would start by comparing different methods of quantifying training in both aerobic and anaerobic
exercise bouts. This would initially be laboratory based studies to provide a more controlled
environment before progressing to field based studies. From these studies individuals can be tracked
during an exercise programme to examine the ability of the tools to monitor adaptation, before a
final study when the exercise programme content is manipulated.
PSYCHOLOGY OF EXERCISE BEHAVIOUR AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE
Dr Athanasios Papaioannou
Title: An examination of social cognitions in football officials
Interest in social cognition in the domain of sport has grown rapidly over the last decade, with a
plethora of research dedicated to exploring individual differences within many sporting groups. One
group which has received some attention are football referees, it is well-known that referees have
been considered as facing intense pressure and criticism from external agencies such as fans,
managers and the media. It has been extensively reported throughout psychological research that
individuals can adopt many cognitive strategies which can assist them in dealing with adverse
situations. Limited studies have shown that referees employ a number of psychological strategies
including distorting reality, illusory superiority and self-enhancement bias. From developing such
strategies and holding these views referees can maintain cognitive and social functions thus being
adaptive for their health and wellbeing.
Programme of Research:
The proposed research will aim to investigate the social cognitions that referees have and evaluate
the strategies that they currently employ to maintain their required status. The proposed
programme of research will also seek to understand how referees attribute criticism and whether
they adopt self-protective mechanisms to maintain their psychological wellbeing. Further the
emotions and emotion regulation strategies used by referees to manage their own emotions, and
those they interact with will be explored. In particular, individual difference variables such as
personality and physiological reactivity will be considered.
Title: A longitudinal study of the role of social status and social satisfaction in university student
drinking behaviour
Background: Despite the clear negative outcomes associated with heavy drinking (Corrao, Bagnardi,
Zambon & Le Vecchia, 2004; Kopelman, Thomson, Guerrini & Marshall, 2009), this behaviour forms
an integral part of the UK student lifestyle (Heather et al., 2011). NUS and DrinkAware have reported
that although students are aware of current alcohol intervention campaigns targeted at young
people they are not responsive to them. Hsu et al in the USA (unpublished conference presentation)
reported that the social satisfaction gained from binge drinking could be a powerful positive
motivator for student drinking. Hsu et al found that low status students who engaged in binge
drinking were able to access some of the benefits of social satisfaction (satisfaction with social life)
that usually goes with high status. Conversely, high status students who did not binge drink lost
some of the benefits of social satisfaction they should expect from having high status. To date there
has been no longitudinal research on social status, social satisfaction, and alcohol consumption
among the student population.
The current project will address the gap in existing literature by focusing on the social factors
potentially influencing drinking behaviour in students. Areas to explore will include the relationship
between alcohol consumption and popularity (using a sociometric index of popularity), attitudes
towards abstinence and heavy drinking (using qualitative methods) , and a longitudinal study of a
group of first year students’ drinking behaviour, perceived social satisfaction and popularity as they
progress through university. It is envisaged that the findings from this project will inform future
alcohol intervention campaigns.
Title: Contributions of Psycho-Physiology Markers to the Examination of Social and Interpersonal
Phenomena in Sport; Links to Attention and Performance
Background: Attachment theory is a theory of social development that explains the emotional bonds
formed between two individuals. Recent research has found that social attachment bonds formed
between athletes and their parents and athletes and their coaches are central to the development of
high quality relationships, wellbeing and satisfaction in organised sport. However, it has been found
in other contexts that social attachment bonds formed with significant others (i.e., with parents,
romantic partners and organizational leaders) impact upon an individual’s attention flexibility and
performance under stressful situations. However, to date and to our knowledge there has been no
research conducted that has examined the role of attachment bonds on athletes attention and
performance in sport.
Programme of Research
The programme of research will aim to investigate the effect of social attachment bonds with
significant others (i.e., attachment to parents, coaches, peers) as underlying differences in athletes
attention and performance under conditions present in competitive sport situations. The proposed
programme of research will investigate psychophysiological stressors and athletes’ perceptions of
these stressors under different conditions. Furthermore, the programme of research will attempt to
utilise a variety of methods and procedures (i.e., experimental procedures, use of questionnaires
and physiological measures) to examine such phenomena.
Title: The Use of Feedback by Sport Coaches and the Impact of Audio Feedback using Technology on
Performance, Motivation and Development
Background: Sport coaching is an area where the provision of effective feedback is fundamental to
athlete learning and progression. Feedback from coaches provides cues about abilities, can be a
motivator, and can impact positively or negatively on self-esteem and perceived competence.
However, there appear to be few in-depth explorations of how feedback is delivered by coaches or
received and interpreted by athletes. Most research related to feedback in sport focuses on the type
of feedback (instructional, intrinsic or extrinsic) rather than the mode or style of feedback used. Yet
mode of feedback may be significant in addressing different learner styles or needs and the nature
on motivational climate that is developed. Research in Higher Education suggests many
undergraduate students are positive about the use of audio feedback received through digital
technology, and suggest it has the potential to help learning, motivation to learn and reflection
(Merry & Orsmond, 2008; Lunt & Curran, 2010). This is an approach in its infancy and more research
is needed exploring its potential with different user groups in different settings.
Programme of study
Study 1: Exploration of coaches’ and athletes experiences of feedback in general (qualitative study).
Study 2: Introduction of use of audio feedback using technology.
Study 3: Evaluation of its effectiveness in terms of a) feasibility b) coach athlete views/experiences
and c) coach/athlete development, potentially across different athlete or learner groups or different
performance levels.
This PhD study has the potential to develop theoretical and practical understanding of feedback and
to propose strategies that appear optimal for achieving life-long involvement, personal development
and elite level performance within sport and physical activity. The practical implications of the PhD
findings will be of interest to educators, coaches, sport psychologists, policy makers, and sports
administrators.
Title: Expert Coaching: Strategies to Develop Talented Adolescent Athletes
Background: The attainment of expert performance has been studied for decades across a range of
human performance domains and it is now well established that a minimum of ten years of intense
training is required before any individual will acquire elite levels of sports performance. Critically,
this research has focused predominantly on examining the participation and competition patterns
through the lens of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993) and deliberate play
(Côté, 1999) theories of only elite level performers and not coaches. Subsequently only limited
research exists which has examined what sports coaches who operate at the truly elite level of
performance perceive to be the best way to coach their athletes. This proposal is based on the fact
that little is known concerning how, why and at what stage of the development process do current
elite level coaches integrate principles of deliberate practice and deliberate play models within the
context of their learning environments. Undertaking this research will enable questions such as what
are the most conducive learning conditions for the different ages within diverse sports to be
determined. Both the challenge now facing talent development researchers and the key objective of
this programme of study is to determine the microstructure of training practices delivered by high
performing coaches across a range of sports and age ranges.
Programme of study
This PhD will make use of elite level coaches from across a range of sports who work with talented
individuals from across a broad age range. A series of studies are proposed to:
Study 1:
Employ qualitative interviews to explore the coaching philosophy and microstructures of learning
environments delivered by high level coaches who work across different age ranges within the
development process from each of the following sports: individual early developer, team early
developer, individual late developer, team late developer.
Study 2:
Quantify coaching environment microstructure over a period of time (at least twice for each coach,
across different sports and age ranges and within both off and within season periods) employing
video and robust observational tools. Findings will reveal how coaches within different contexts and
at different age ranges may coach and shed light upon what are they like when they coach 12 and 16
years olds and does the microstructure of the content differ. A sample of athletes would also be
interviewed for insight into their perceptions and experiences of the learning environments they
encountered.
Study 3:
Undertake a comparison between the microstructure of sessions delivered with talent identification
and development policies and pathways proposed by respective national governing bodies.
Study 4:
Undertake retrospective qualitative interviews which trace the developmental pathways
experienced by the elite coaches. This data will expose if their coaching philosophy changed over
time? How? Did their progression more closely align with the 10,000 hour rule or the diversified
approach?
Findings will extend the existing development of expert sports coaching literature and provide
significant practical implications for sports practitioners, policy makers and educators charged with
creating optimal learning environments which develop not only elite levels of performance but also
foster long term physical activity behaviour and positive well-being in the future.
Title: Coaching Strategies Employed by Elite Senior Level Sports Performance Coaches
Background: The attainment of expert performance has been studied for decades across a range of
human performance domains and it is now well established that a minimum of ten years of intense
training is required before any individual will acquire elite levels of sports performance. Critically,
this research has focused predominantly on examining the participation and competition patterns
through the lens of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993) and deliberate play
(Côté, 1999) theories of only elite level performers and not coaches. Subsequently only limited
research exists which has examined what sports coaches who operate at the truly elite level of
performance perceive to be the best way to coach their athletes. This proposal is based on the fact
that little is known concerning how, why and at what stage of the development process do current
elite level coaches integrate principles of deliberate practice and deliberate play models within the
context of their learning environments. Undertaking this research will enable questions such as what
are the most conducive learning conditions for the different ages within diverse sports to be
determined. Both the challenge now facing talent development researchers and the key objective of
this programme of study is to determine the microstructure of training practices delivered by high
performing coaches across a range of sports and age ranges.
Draft Programme of study
This PhD will make use of elite level coaches from across a range of sports who work solely with elite
adult athletes only. A series of studies are proposed to:
Study 1:
Undertake structured qualitative interviews with elite high performance coaches who only work
with truly elite level adult athletes from the following sports (individual early developer, team early
developer, individual late developer, team late developer). This will shed light upon what coaches
think is important to do within the sessions, what they perceive deliberate practice to be and how
they may implement the principles into practice.
Study 2:
Undertake coach observations employing video and robust observational tools over the period of 6
months to determine the true nature of their coaching practice at least twice and from coaches
across the different sports). This will provide insight into what do they actually and address
questions like do they implement aspects of deliberate practice and are they aware that they do
this? Does their practice link with deliberate practice principles? How do they develop expertise in
their yearlong periodised training plans? Is it in an implicit way? The observations will last as long as
the session runs (could be 30 minutes or 3 hours). One observation will be completed in the preseason period and another in the competitive season as there may be variability within the content
of sessions undertaken in each period based on fitness levels etc).
Study 3:
Enable coaches to complete self- report diary logs longitudinally which will enable them to
document the microstructure of the training their athletes will have undertaken. This will create
data which will reveal where in the week did they create learning environments that characterised
deliberate practice and what percentage of training was characterised as deliberate practice The
self-report logs will be maintained for seven day periods over the course of the on and off season. A
sample of the athletes will also be interviewed upon their experiences of the training environments
they encountered.
Study 4:
Create an online survey which will ask approximately 50-75senior level performance coaches from a
variety of sports to how they would like the sports science fraternity to help them improve their
effectiveness as coaches. How would they like to be supported in the future? Why? What specific
research would they like undertaken which would aid their practice and hold powerful practically
applied significance and why?
The findings of this PhD will extend the existing development of expert sports coaching literature
and provide significant practical implications for sports practitioners, policy makers and educators
who are charged with creating optimal learning environments which develop not only elite levels of
performance but also foster long term physical activity behaviour and positive well-being in the
future.
Title: Coach Practice & Education in Sports Science
Background
It widely accepted that a sound working knowledge of sport science is integral to the coaching
process (Abraham et al., 2006; Nash & Collins, 2006). Despite this research has revealed that
coaches express limited knowledge of sport science, perceive a variety of barriers to its use and have
little efficacy in their implementation of such methods (Callow et al., 2010; Meyers, 2006; Pain &
Harwood, 2004; Rockwell et al., 2001).
Research in the USA has revealed that coaches typically acquire knowledge about sports science
through formal coach education (Wilson et al., 2010), yet still place great emphasis on informal
methods of learning (Ko et al., 2006; Deglau & O’Sullivan, 2006; Armour & Yelling 2007). It is
suggested that teaching sports science to coaches should go beyond a technical overview of the
discipline, and should demonstrate how sports science can be fully integrated within the coaching
process (Potrac, 2000). This suggestion was recently supported by Callow et al. (2010) who found
that generic workshops on imagery did not increase coaches’ efficacy in their ability to deliver
imagery programmes. Instead it was found that a needs based approach to teaching imagery was
more effective.
Sports science is crucial to the coach process. However, there is limited research in the UK on the
effectiveness of existing formal methods of teaching sports science to coaches. A series of studies
are proposed to:A) Examine coaches’ efficacy in their ability to implement sports science in practice;
B) Determine how coaches learn about sport science and what they would find useful and
beneficial in formal sports science education;
C) To examine the effectiveness of a sport science education intervention on coaches’ efficacy
to integrate sports science into their practice.
Findings from this research could have implications for coach education and influence the way in
which principles of sports science are currently taught within formal coach education programs.
Title: The role of emotions and motivational climate in health and performance
Background: The programme of study will examine the influence of stress and coping on
motivational climate in health and performance.
The ability to effectively regulate emotions under stressful conditions has been identified as being
central to health and performance. Moreover, motivational climate and interpersonal relationships
can influence self-regulation and have implications for performance outcomes and wellbeing. The
psycho-physiological research project will use a range of methodologies to be developed in
collaboration with the award recipient. It is anticipated the line of enquiry will involve experimental
research and the development of an intervention programme aimed at enhancing health,
performance and relationships. Further, the specific populations of interest will be agreed with the
supervisory team upon commencement of the programme of research, these may include: athletes
and coaches; teachers and students; therapists and patients; or an alternative group proposed by
the successful applicant.
Title: Evaluating the Impact on Social Media on the Legacy of London2012 for Sportswomen
Background: The proposed Phd studentship would investigate the potential of social media, in
particular Twitter to raise the profile of women’s sport post-London2012. The gold medal successes
of Jessica Ennis, Katherine Grainger and Nicola Adams raised the profile Team GB’s sportswomen.
Post London2012 the promise of an Olympic legacy, in terms of increased visibility and a media
presence for women’s sport, has not been realised. Less than 5% of coverage of sport in UK
newspapers focuses on women’s sport. It is increasingly evident that to be able to systematically
support and publicise opportunities and sporting successes for girls and women needs a drastic
change in the structure and culture of sport. One potential way to revolutionise athlete networks is
via the new medium of social media.
Twitter enables fans to get closer to their favourite athletes than ever before. There is a growing
literature demonstrating that fans have unprecedented access to athlete networks as fans are able
to engage at a more personal and direct level with sportsmen and women. In this way, Twitter has a
well-known commercial benefit that could facilitate building up a fan base and increasing that
visibility of women’s sport in the digital era. The current study would investigate the extent to which
a fundamental shift in broadcast media and a rise of new social media can positively influence the
exposure of sportswomen. If sporting organisations can mobilise their resources through the use of
Twitter this may alter the supply/demand equation to allow GB sportswomen to make in-roads into
a visible presence in the sports media.
Title: The “Northumbria sport and life skills program” for disadvantaged young mothers in
collaboration with the Cyrenians
Background: The University of Northumbria has an important social role in its region. Support of the
present PhD studentship will be an example of the university’s emphasis on research innovation and
social responsibility. Sport psychology can be used for the promotion of life skills and well-being of
disadvantaged youth (Danish & Nollen 1997). The present research aims at the development of a
“life-skills through sport” program in collaboration with employees of Cyrenians who have been
previously disadvantaged themselves. At the last phase of this PhD project the newly developed
“Northumbria sport and life-skills sport program” will be applied to disadvantaged young mothers
because early parental support and skills development determine cognitive and noncognitive
abilities and well-being of disadvantaged individuals later in life (Heckman, 2006). The Cyrenians
have over 250 employees. Most of them have been previously disadvantaged individuals who have
been helped by the Cyrenians and later earned a position as employees in the company. The first
phase of this PhD program will involve the training of a few Cyrenians employees to develop their
knowledge and skills in how to apply sport psychology concepts and techniques for life-skills
development. An output of this research phase will be the first draft of the educational
“Northumbria sport and life skills program” for the disadvantaged. At the second phase of the
program the trained Cyrenians staff will teach this program to a larger number of Cyrenians
employees. Feedback from this training will be used to revise the first draft of the “Northumbria
sport and life skills program”. At the third phase of this program the Cyrenians employees will apply
this program to young disadvantaged mothers. The PhD student will be trained to use a mixed
method design including qualitative and advanced quantitative techniques. The Cyrenians agree to
participate in this project and the main supervisor has experience in the development and
application of “life skills through sport programs” in large scale projects (Milosis & Papaioannou,
2007; Papaioannou, 2009).
Danish, S. & Nellen, V. (1997). New Roles for Sport Psychologists: Teaching Life Skills Through Sport
to At-Risk Youth. Quest, 1, 100-113.
Heckman, J. (2006). Skill development and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children.
Science, 312, 1900-1902.
Milosis, D., & Papaioannou, A. (2007). Interdisciplinary teaching, multiple goals and self-concept. In
J. Liukkonen (Ed.), Psychology for physical educators (Vol. 2) (pp. 175-198). Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.
Papaioannou, A. (2009). Promoting adolescent health through an intervention aimed at improving
the quality of their participation in Physical Activity” (2009-2013: 233743 EURO for the University of
Thessaly). Funding Institution: 7th Framework Program, European Commission.