Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy
Fall 2003
BIOS 314
lecture: 11:00-12:00 Monday and Wednesday
lab: 9:00-11:50 or 1:00-4:00 Thurs
Instructor: Curt Anderson, Ph.D.
Office: LS 331
Research lab: LS 330
Phone: 282-5813
e-mail: andecurt@isu.edu
homepage: www.isu.edu/~andecurt
Office hours: TBA
Objectives
To explore the phylogenetic underpinnings of vertebrates and to develop an appreciation for the
comparative approach for understanding structure and functional design. This course will
survey the gross structure of most major vertebrate groups with a focus on the functional,
evolutionary, developmental and physiological mechanisms that influence the design of
organisms.
Required Texts
Vertebrates; comparative anatomy, function, evolution. 2002. Kardong. 3rd edition (second
edition is okay, too, but the 3rd is better), Harcourt College Publishers. ISBN: 0072909560
(used copies may be available. try Half.com or Amazon.com)
Course Policies
Students are expected to attend all lecture and laboratory sessions. If you have extenuating
circumstances and must miss, notify me ahead of time in order to schedule a make up exam
(make up exams are generally more difficult). Unexcused absences will result in a zero for that
quiz/examination. Quizzes will be given weekly in lab and missed quizzes can not be made up.
Throughout the semester, the correct answer to 'will this be on the test?' is yes.
Unavoidably, this course is a relatively expensive one. Please see the laboratory page for a list
of required equipment in addition to the texts.
ISU Official Policy on Academic Integrity
Academic integrity is expected of all individuals in academe. Behavior beyond reproach must be
the norm. Academic dishonesty in any form is unacceptable. Academic dishonesty includes,
but is not limited to, cheating and plagiarism.
CHEATING is defined as the act of using or attempting to use, in examination(s) or other
academic work, material, information, or study aids which are not permitted by the instructor.
PLAGIARISM is defined as representing another person’s words, ideas, data or work as one’s
own. Plagiarism includes, but is not limited to, the exact duplication of another’s work and the
incorporation of a substantial or essential portion thereof without appropriate citation. Other
examples of plagiarism are the acts of appropriating the creative works in such fields as art,
music and technology, or portions thereof, and presenting them as one’s own.
A note on dissections: EVERY student MUST participate in the dissection exercises. The
specimens we will be viewing come from supply companies that are required by law to ensure
that the animals are euthanized in a safe and humane manner. These animals were
euthanized for our educational benefit and the proper level of professionalism will be
maintained. If you have ethical or moral objections to dissecting animals, you should drop the
course (BIOS 324 is the alternate course to fulfill the requirements of the zoology major).
Writing assignment
The purpose of the assignment is to:
 supplement the material you are learning in lecture and laboratory
 force you to discover the primary literature (and where it is in the library)
 pursue a topic in comparative anatomy that is of interest to you
specific requirements:
Choose a topic of interest to you and relevant to the topic of comparative
anatomy/functional morphology. Using any literature sources you choose (but at least 5 MUST
be from the primary literature!), you will summarize the appropriate research in an 8-10 page,
double-spaced report. As budding scientists, you will almost certainly be writing many more
such reports in your future. As such, writing, grammar and spelling in addition to content will be
taken into account when considering your grade for the report. Here are some potential topics
to give you an idea of what is expected:
 allometry of the vertebrate brain
 theories on the evolution of flight
 functional anatomy and evolution of the lungs of flying vertebrates
 moving on land: optimizing for minimum cost
 optimality in the design of bony elements
Grading Procedures
The University has instituted a grading policy that includes the use of a + and - in addition to the
letter grade. The new grading averages will be as follows:
A
AB+
B
BC+
C
CD+
D
DF
(93.0 - 100%)
(89.5 - 92.9%)
(87.0 - 89.4%)
(83.0 - 86.9%)
(79.5 - 82.9%)
(77.0 - 79.4%)
(73.0 - 76.9%)
(69.5 - 72.9%)
(67.0 - 69.4%)
(63.0 - 66.9%)
(59.5 - 62.9%)
(< 59.5%)
Your course grade will be based roughly on:
3 lecture exams 100 points each
2 lab exams
100 points each
lab quizzes
50 points total
written project
100 points (25 points outline; 75 points report)
total
650 points
Tentative Lecture schedule
Lecture #
01 Mo
02 We
Mo
03 We
2
04 Mo
05 We
06 Mo
07 We
08 Mo
09 We
Mo
10 We
11 Mo
12 We
13 Mo
14 We
15 Mo
16 We
17 Mo
18 We
Mo
19 We
20 Mo
21 We
22 Mo
23 We
Mo
We
24 Mo
25 We
26 Mo
27 We
Fr
Date
Aug 25
Aug 27
Sep 01
Sep 03
Topic
Introduction/expectations
Evolution and Systematics I
no class – Labor Day
Systematics/Phylogeny of Chordates
Sep 08
Sep 10
Sep 15
Sep 17
Sep 22
Sep 24
Sep 29
Oct 01
Oct 06
Oct 08
Oct 13
Oct 15
Oct 20
Oct 22
Oct 27
Oct 29
Nov 03
Nov 05
Nov 10
Nov 12
Nov 17
Nov 19
Nov 24
Nov 26
Dec 01
Dec 03
Dec 08
Dec 10
Dec 19
Phylogeny of Chordates II
Chapt 3
Phylogeny of VertebratesII
Phylogeny of Vertebrates II
Biological Design
Chapt 4
Structural Materials
Integument
Chapt 6
Exam I /writing assignment outline and topic due
Muscles
The Skull
Chapt 7
The Vertebrate Axis
Chapt 8
The Vertebrate Skeleton
Vertebrate Locomotion -- girdles and limbs
pp. 142-144; 339-348
Vertebrate Locomotion -- swimming and flying pp. 144-146; 347-354
Respiratory I
Chapt 11
Respiratory II
Circulation I
Chapt 12
Exam II /writing assignment due
Circulation II
Digestion and Feeding I
Chapt 13
Digestion and Feeding II
Urogenital I
Chapt 14
Urogenital II
comparative avian muscle study -- no class
comparative avian muscle study -- no class
Nervous System: organization
Chapt 16
Nervous System: organization II
Nervous System: sensory I
Chapt 17
Nervous System: sensory II
Final (7:30am - 9:30am)
pp. 20-27
I
Chapt
BIOS 314L/514L
thursdays 9-12; 1-4pm
Instructor: C. Anderson, PhD
Office: Bios 331
Phone: 282-5813
e-mail: andecurt@isu.edu
required text:
Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy 2002. Kardong and Zalisko. 3rd edition (much better than
2nd edition) ISBN: 0072909579
(used copies may be available. try Half.com or Amazon.com)
required equipment:
large scissors (5-5.5")
small, straight scissors
fine tipped forceps
large forceps
metal scalpel handle (avoid plastic handles)
blunt probe (Huber probe)
protective gloves (an entire box/student is recommended)
lab coat (optional, but recommended)
Many of the dissections will be done in pairs, so you could potentially get by if you want to
purchase one set of dissecting tools/pair. However, I'd recommend each owning one. The kits
at the bookstore are cheap and of not much quality. I will have kits made available for you to
purchase through the ISU Biology Department stockroom The dissection tools will be required
by lab 06. You may also purchase a box of gloves from Medical Mart or the Biological Sciences
stockroom.
Tentative Laboratory schedule
Week #
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Date
Aug 28
Sep 04
Sep 11
Sep 18
Sep 25
Oct 02
Oct 09
Oct 16
Oct 23
Oct 30
Nov 06
Nov 13
Nov 20
Nov 27
Dec 04
Dec 11
Topic
No labs this week
classification/cladistics
the vertebrate body/vertebrate skull
post-cranial skeleton I
post-cranial skeleton II
musculature I
musculature II
PRACTICAL #1
general internal anatomy
circulation I
circulation II
urogenital system
nervous system I
thanksgiving break--no lab
nervous system II and review
PRACTICAL #2
BIOS 314L
Laboratory 1
Chordate diversity
goals: To become familiar with the extant groups of the phylum chordata and the process of
creating a cladogram.
What you need to know for the exam:
1. You must be able to identify the taxonomic position of any chordate to the level of the
labels provided in lab.
2. You should know two or three characteristics of each group.
3. You should be able to reconstruct the cladogram of chordates provided.
4. You should be able to construct a cladogram from a data sheet.
See attached cladograms for what material you should know. Note that I have erased some of
the information from the figures in the text. Below lists a brief description of each group. The
bold words are words you will be responsible for. Refer to this as you peruse the specimens.
UROCHORDATA (tunicates)
This interesting group is represented here by several types of tunicates. Although this is not
apparent from the anatomy of the adults, urochordates are clearly allied with the rest of the
chordates. The larvae of these animals have notochords and segmented muscles in addition to
the pharyngeal "gill" slits seen in the hemichordates (Fig. 2.5). The notochord and muscle are
used for swimming and are lost when larvae metamorphose into a sedentary adults. Be sure to
examine the slide of a tunicate larvae .
CEPHALOCHORDATA
Commonly called lancelets or Amphioxus, Branchiostoma are small marine chordates which
can be found in shallow coastal regions of our oceans. They are capable of swimming but
spend the majority of their time sitting tail down in the sediment and filter feeding. They possess
many pharyngeal slits and a distinct notochord. They also have a dorsal hollow nerve cord and
segmented body muscles (myomeres) (Fig. 2.6, 2.7). Water is flushed into the pharynx with
cilia in the oral cavity. Food is trapped as the water flows out the pharyngeal slits and is passed
into the gut.
MYXINOIDEA (Myxiniformes)
The hagfish (Fig. 3.2) have traditionally been lumped with lampreys and the extinct
ostrachoderms in the class Agnatha because they all lack jaws. However, recent work indicates
that this may not be a natural group. As the evidence is still inconclusive, we will still refer
hagfish and lampreys to the Class Agnatha but will relegate them to distinct groups under this
heading. Hagfish are scavengers of the deep sea. They burrow right through carcasses, using
a rasping "tongue" to shear off tissue. They have amazing mucus glands in their skin and can
turn a bucket of water into a bucket of jello-like slime in seconds. They only do this when
disturbed and it is thought to be a means of evading predators.
PETROMYZONTIDA (Petromyzontiformes)
The lampreys (Fig. 3.6, 3.8 are found in both marine and fresh water. They have complex life
histories that involve a larval stage. The larvae, or amocoetes, superficially resemble
Branchiostoma but differ in important ways. The amocoete (Fig. 3.10) has relatively few
pharyngeal slits, gills, eyes, and it pumps water into the pharynx using muscular contractions
rather than cilia. Some adult lampreys continue to filter feed but others are predacious, like the
sea lamprey, sucking body fluids out of fish which they attach themseveles to with a specialized
disk-shaped mouth. They have a single, dorso-medial nostril.
Chondrichthyes -- ELASMOBRANCHII
This group is made up of the sharks and rays. These animals have true jaws which are not
attached to the braincase, and paired fins. They have a spiracle, paired nostrils and well
developed sensory systems including a lateral line and electrosensory pits on the head. They
have a secondarily derived cartilagenous skeleton (that is, their ancestors had bony skeletons)
and no skull. Skates and rays are primarily bottom dwellers and have enormous pectoral fins
that give them a disc like appearance. Most sharks have stream-lined bodies that help make
them effecient swimmers. Male sharks and rays have "claspers" by the cloaca that allow them
to internally fertilize females, which either produce large yolky eggs or are ovoviviporous (hold
eggs internally and give birth to live young). Notice the characteristic heterocercal (asymetrical)
caudal fin and the lack of visible scales.
Chondrichthyes -- HOLOCEPHALI
The ratfish or chimaeras are primarily deep sea animals. They feed on mulluscs and have large
tooth plates on the roof of the mouth that are fused with the braincase (unlike the upper jaw of
sharks and rays). Like the elasmobranchii, they have cartilagenous skeletons, well developed
sensory systems, no scales on the skin and paired fins. They differ from sharks in having a
single external gill opening and no spiracle.
Actinoptyerygii -- POLYPTERIFORMES
This group of actinopterigian fish is from Africa and is composed of two extant genera. You can
examine a preserved Polypterus here. Notice the all dorsal fins,the single external gill opening
and its distinctly scaly skin. This group differs from other rayfinned fish in having fleshy lobes
extending onto the fins. They have well formed lungs and can live in stagnant pools by
breathing air. These animals have bony skeletons.
Actinoptyerygii -- ACIPENSERIFORMES (Chondrostei)
Like the members of the class Chondrichthyes, these fish have secondarily cartilagenous
skeletons,heterocercal caudal fins and lack scales. The sturgeon does have some bone plates
on its skin. The fins of these animals are supported by rays (as opposed to the lobes seen in
Polypterus) The paddlefish (Polyodon), with its huge, paddle-shaped rostrum is found only in
the Mississippi drainage while sturgeons are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere.
Polydon is a filter feeder and sturgeons primarily are benthic (bottom) feeders.
Actinoptyerygii -- LEPISOSTEIFORMES
The gars are found only in North America. They have ganoid scales and long, thin jaws, well
armed with teeth used in catching other fish for food. They have a bony skeleton and ray fins.
Actinoptyerygii -- BOWFINS (Amia)
The Bowfin (Amia) is the last surviving member of this group. It is found in central and southern
North America. Amia lacks the ganoid type scales of its ancestors and has a more complex
feeding mechanism as well. This involves a rotating maxillary bone that occludes the side of the
mouth during suction feeding.
TELEOSTEI
The teleosts are by far the most diverse group of vertebrates. We have a tiny fraction of this
group out for your examination but this should give some idea of how incredibly diverse this
group is. The feeding mechanism of teleosts is even more complex than that of Amia and
allows significant protrusion of the jaws to catch prey. Many forms have a second set of fully
functional jaws in the throat called pharygeal jaws. They lack lungs but have swim bladders
used for buoyancy and some have evolved new breathing organs. These animals are found in
the deepest parts of the oceans, high in mountain lakes and in ponds in the middle of deserts.
ACTINISTIA -- Coelocanths
These sarcopterigians were thought to have gone extinct during the Cretaceous until Latimeria
was discovered in 1939. This "living fossil" lives around the Comoro Islands in the Indian
Ocean. It has no lungs, no internal nostrils and a primarily cartilagenous skeleton. However,
these are apparently adaptions for dwelling in deep water and characteristics such as fleshy
fins and features of the skull indicate that it is closely related to the tetrapods. These animals
are ovoviviparous.
DIPNOI -- lungfishes
There are three genera left in this formerly diverse group. Neoceratodus is found in Australia,
Lepidosiren in South America and the animal on display, Protopterus from Africa. They all have
well formed lungs and Protopterus and Lepidosiren can survive long periods (18+ months)
without any water. They fill their lung by pumping the buccal floor and forcing air inside. These
animals have fleshy fins and cosmoid scales.
LISSAMPHIBIA
These highly derived animals are extremely different from the amphibians that gave rise to
reptiles. There are three extant orders. The Gymnophiona (Caecilians) are tropical, burrowing
animals that have secondarily become limbless. They are found throughout the rainforests of
the world. The Caudata (salamanders) are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere and in
South America. Most have four legs but they are greatly reduced in Amphiuma and only the
pectoral(front) limbs are present in Siren. One large group of salamanders, the Plethodontids,
have lost their lungs and breath through the skin. The Anura (frogs) are found almost
everywere. They have a reduced number of vertebrae, no tail, and long hind legs for jumping.
All of these groups had a larval stage primitively but direct developement, ovoviviparity and
viviparity have evolved in different lineages. The lissamphibia can generally be defined as
having four legs, a larval stage, lungs and moist skin.
TESTUDINES
The tortoises and turtles represent anapsid (no temporal fenestra) reptiles. They have a shell
and a pelvic girdle that is inside the ribcage, unlike all other tetrapods and they have no teeth.
These animals range from being completely aquatic (i.e sea turtles) to completely terrestrial
(the dessert tortoise) and have a wide variety of feeding habits. They lay amniotic eggs with
leathery shells.
Lepidosauria -- SQUAMATA
This group, decended from diapsid reptiles, is comprised of lizards, snakes and
amphisbaenians. These animals have tough, impervious skin, lay amniotic eggs (may have
secondarily evolved ovoviviparity) and have teeth. Snakes, most amphisbaenians and many
lizards are secondarily legless. Amphisbaenians have distinictinve annuli (rings of flesh).
Snakes and legless lizards can be externally distinguished because snakes never have eyelids,
ear openings or autonomous tails.
Lepidosauria -- RHYNCHOCEPHALIA (tuatara)
The only living member of the "beak heads" is the tuatara (Sphenodon) of New Zealand. This
strange beast maintains a much lower temperature than other reptiles, has a large pineal eye
and may live to be fifty years old.
CROCODILIA
This group is represented by Alligators, Caiman, Crocodiles and the Gavial of India. These
superficially lizard-like beasts live throughout the tropics and subtropics. They have
osteoderms in the skin and teeth set in sockets. Some species build nests, and help the young
hatch out of their eggs and guard them for some time after birth.
AVES
This group is derived from a group of dinosaurs and primitively had teeth, a tail, and claws on
the wings. They have feathers, no teeth, usually provide extensive parental care to their
offspring and the ability to fly. The distinctive keeled breast bone and reduced digits on the
forelimbs are an easy way to identify a bird skeleton even without the head. They have a
unique and highly efficient unidirectional respiratory tract that allows them to fly at great heights.
Even though they have no teeth to chew with, they have a gizzard before the stomach in which
they grind up food with pebbles.
MAMMALIA
These animals are derived from synapsid reptiles. They have fur and mammary glands with
which they feed their young. They are endotherms (producing their own heat) and maintain high
internal temperatures when active. Three distinct groups are extant. The monotremata are
represented by the platypus and echidna of Australia and New Guinae. These animals still lay
eggs and do not have nipples, the young licking a patch of skin over the mammary gland. The
remaining Theria can be subdivided into two groups. The metatheria, or marsupials, are most
common in Australia but several species of opposum range in North and South America.
These animals give birth after a short gestation period and the neonate completes development
in a pouch on the mother. The eutherians, or placental mammals, have an extended gestation
period, during which the young gets nutrients and oxygen via a placenta.
An introduction to phylogenetics and systematics
Cladistics is a method of analyzing the evolutionary relationships between groups to construct
their family tree. It has been around for almost fifty years, but has really become popular in the
past two decades. The principle behind it is that organisms should be classified according to
their evolutionary relationships, and that the way to discover these relationships is to analyze
what are called primitive and derived characters.
Primitive characters are those attributes of a plant or animal that all members of the group
possess. Having four legs is primitive for mammals; they inherited this characteristic from their
common ancestor (a proto-mammal or mammal-like reptile). Primitive characters are of no use
in analyzing the relationship of organisms within a particular group. Were you to try to construct
a family tree for all mammals, it is not helpful to note that they all have four legs. They do, but it
doesn't help you in determining who is related to whom. In the jargon of cladistics, primitive
characters are called plesiomorphic. Primitive characters shared by all members of the group
in question are called symplesiomorphic. (Note: there is no such thing as a primitive
organism, only an organism that retains primitive characteristics!)
Derived characters are advanced traits which only appear in some members of the group.
Cladistics is based on the assumption that the appearance of shared derived characters
(synapomorphies) gives clues to evolutionary relationships. A derived character, for example,
for some mammals might be loss of the tail, which occurs in the great apes and man. It is
assumed that loss of the tail occurred only once, in the common ancestor of apes and man, and
that none of us has one because we inherited that trait from our common ancestor. Thus if
mammals are separated into groups which do and which don't have a tail, shown by a fork on
the evolutionary diagram (cladogram), this represents the point at which a new species
evolved which didn't have a tail. Man and the great apes are assumed to have descended from
this species.
It is important to note that the designation of primitive and derived characters has meaning only
when related to the group under study. A character that is derived relative to one group may be
primitive for a less inclusive group. The occurrence of fur is a derived character if one is
studying all tetrapods (four-footed vertebrates), and serves to distinguish mammals from their
ancestors, the reptiles. However, it is a primitive character for the group consisting only of all
mammals, and is not useful for determining relationships within the Mammalia.
The premise behind a cladistic analysis is that by examining suites of primitive and derived
characters, diagrams can be drawn which illuminate the evolutionary relationships between the
groups. Branching points (nodes) on the diagram are generated every time a derived character
(or group of them) is identified which one group possesses and another does not. The two
groups on alternate sides of a node are called sister-groups. By analyzing enough different
characters or traits, eventually, it is hoped, a true picture of the family tree can be generated.
The goal is to create a diagram where all members of the analysis are descended from a
single, common ancestral species, and for which all descendant species are included. This is
called a monophyletic group. If all members of a group are not descended from a single
common ancestor, the group is termed polyphyletic. If the group doesn't contain every
descendant of that common ancestor, it is called paraphyletic. An example of a paraphyletic
group is the reptiles. The Class Reptilia in its traditional sense is a useful concept, but it doesn't
contain all the descendants of a common ancestor, because mammals and birds are generally
placed in their own classes.
There are some factors which complicate a cladistic analysis. One is convergent evolution.
Bipedality was a characteristic of man. But if your analysis included all groups of mammals, you
would probably note that kangaroos are also bipedal. Does this mean that they should be
considered closer relatives of man than are the great apes? This problem is handled by
including as many different characters as possible in a cladistic analysis.
(parts of the above modified from 'What is Cladistics' by Lynne M. Clos)
The best way to begin to set up a cladogram is to define a data matrix. Using mammals as an
example, we can create the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
character #
1
2
3
4
fish
reptiles
monkeys
apes
man
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
Has four legs (no = 0; yes = 1)
Has fur
(no = 0; yes = 1)
Lacks a tail (no = 0; yes = 1
Walks bipedally (no = 0; yes = 1)
Most data matrices are much, much more complicated (more defined characters allows greater
resolution). These matrices are then run through various computer software programs.
However, in our example, we could easily create the following cladogram:
fish
reptiles
monkeys
apes
man
synapomorphies
What do each of the nodes represent?
What is the value of using an outgroup (fish) in your cladogram?
Where would you put snakes? Why?
5. Now, lets try creating a cladogram with your own data matrix:
Define your character states and place the “animal” on the correct line according to the
acquired characteristics you defined.
Car
Horse-drawn Cart
Plane
Space Shuttle
Synapomorphies
2. Create a data matrix and fill in the following cladogram.
Animals
Bird
Fish
Frog
Lizard
Mouse
Shark
Snake
Whale
Characteristics
notochord
vertebrae
feathers
tetrapod
hair
mammary glands
cleidoic Egg
Data matrix:
Bird
Fish
Frog
Lizard
Mouse
Shark
Snake
Whale
3. Create a cladogram given the following data matrix:
legs
stapes
diapsid skull
cleidoic egg
amnion
zebra fish
0
0
0
0
0
frog
1
1
0
0
0
iguana
1
1
1
1
1
snake
0
1
1
1
1
4. Now try your hand creating a cladogram using the numbered mammal skulls on the back
table…..
5. Questions:
 what is cladistics?
 what is a synapomorphy?
 what does primitive mean?
 define homology and homoplasy and give an example of each
 what is meant by a monophyletic group? paraphyletic? give examples of each
LAB 2 – The Cranial Skeleton
INTRODUCTION
Connective tissues include bone, cartilage, fibrous connective tissue, adipose tissue, and blood.
The extracellular matrix of connective tissues determine the physical properties of the tissue,
and hence its functional role. Cartilage and bone are specialized connective tissues that
constitute the skeletal system proper. There are numerous ways to classify bones. One
method is to look at the embryonic origins of bone. Endochondral bone is the formation of a
cartilage model of the future bone from mesenchyme (generalized embryonic tissue) and the
subsequent replacement of this cartilage model by bone tissue. Dermal bone forms directly
from mesenchyme without a cartilage precurser. Sesamoid bones form within tendons and
are not preceded by a cartilage model. The patella bone of the knee is one example. We will
spend much more time in lecture discussing the development and structure of bone and
cartilage. In this lab, however, we will begin to explore the vertebrate skeletal system.
There are numerous ways to collectively group skeletal elements together. One method, used
by your lab manual is to identify an integumentary skeleton, composed of the dermal bone.
These are superficial bones such as scales and teeth. We then can identify an endoskeleton.
Within the endoskeleton there is a somatic skeleton composed of a axial skeleton (those
bones associated with the long axis of the body) and an appendicular skeleton (primarily
those bones associated with paired appendages). The other part of the endoskeleton is the
visceral skeleton, those structures associated with the jaws, tongue, and gills.
In this lab we are going to focus on the ‘cranial’ skeleton; those structures associated with the
skull. Thus, we will view portions of the axial as well as visceral skeleton. What follows is a
description of parts of your lab manual you should read and a list of terms you should be able to
identify on the representative skulls. In lecture, we will be focusing on the function of many of
these bones, but for now, lets focusing on identifying them
HANDLING OF SKULLS - WARNINGS
 THOU SHALL NOT TOUCH SKULLS WITH PEN or PENCIL TIPS!
 Use a blunt probe or dissecting probe.
 Dried skulls of small fishes are very fragile, especially if the pectoral & pelvic girdles are
attached. HANDLE WITH CARE.
 If a skull was found in a box, return it to the correct box.
 DO NOT pile one skull on top of another skull.
 DO NOT balance a skull on the top of a box that is too small for the skull.
GENERALLY, Be able to IDENTIFY the following:
 Taxon of each skull.
 Names of bones or cartilages on list for each specimen.
 Names of cartilaginous or bony structures as noted on list for each specimen.
TAXON CHONDRICHTHYES
Read: Lab Manual pg. 65-80
Dogfish/Squalus (figs. 5.28,5.29
olfactory/nasal capsule (often broken),
orbital capsule (orbit)
otic capsule
occipital region
occipital condyle.
basal plate
TAXON ACTINOPTYERGII
Bowfin skull (figure 5.30)
Premaxilla
Maxilla
Nasal
Parietal
Supratemporal
post temporal
opercular
Postinfraorbitals
post orbital
sub orbital
TAXA LISSAMPHIBIA
Read p. 71
Anuran (Bullfrog) skull (handout)
Premaxilla
nasal
Frontoparietal
Maxilla
Pterygoid
Orbit
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
TAXON TESTUDINES
Turtle skull (fig. 5.33)
Premaxilla
Maxilla
Orbit
Frontal
Postorbital
Parietal
Supraoccipital
Foramen magnum,
Dentary
Alligator Skulls (fig. 5.32)
Nares
Premaxilla
Maxilla
Prefrontal
Frontal
Parietal
Squamosal
Foramen magnum
Dentary
Surangular
Angular
Articular
Splenial
TAXA MAMMALIA
Figures 4-23, 4-24, 4-25
Fig 7-26 (Text)
Cat skull (fig. 5.35)
Nasal
Premaxilla
Maxilla
Orbit
Zygomatic arch
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital bone
Jugal (zygomatic)
Tympanic bulla
Sagittal crest
Sagittal suture
Coronal suture
Condyloid process
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Dentary
Canine
Incisor
Canine
Adult Human Skull
Same as in whole cat skull with this addition:
dentary bones fuse together so well that the whole lower jaw is just called the "mandible" in
your illustrations. The term mandible is a "structure" made up of the two dentary bones.
The pre-maxillae fuse with the maxillae early in development. The incisors are on the premaxilla and the other upper jaw teeth are on the maxilla. Tympanic bullae are small - called
petrous region in your diagrams
BIOS 314L – Lab 03
The Postcranial skeleton – vertebrae
Very useful vocabulary terms are in table 5.2
AXIAL SKELETON
Skeletal elements form along the midline or mid-sagittal axis of the body and are
generally endochondral.
NOTOCHORD
It is a centrally located, gel-filled rod that supports the body of a developing embryo. In
most vertebrates it is replaced (partly or completely) by segmentally arranged vertebrae.
VERTEBRAE STRUCTURE (figs 5.4, 5.9, 5.11, 5.13, 5.14)
The vertebral body or centrum is the large solid disk that takes the compressive forces
during body movement. Centra may be flat or have rounded sockets on one side to
articulate with adjacent vertebrae. The vertebrae enclose the spinal cord with neural (or
vertebral) arches. In the tail (caudal vertebrae) hemal arches enclose blood vessels.
Vertebrae form several areas of muscle attachment via neural spines, transverse
processes & hemal spines.
In fishes, the vertebrae are tightly held together with sheathing of connective tissue or
the continuation of the notochord through the vertebrae. Tetrapod vertebrae need more
support from the effects of gravity to prevent the back from hanging down in the middle
of the trunk. These vertebrae have paired pre (cranial) & post (caudal) zygapophyses
that allow vertebrae to articulate with each other, provide additional support, and limit
the total range & direction of body movement. The pre-zygapophyses have articulating
facets that face upward. They are found on the anterior side of each vertebrae. The
post-zygapophyses have articulating facets that face downward. They are found on the
posterior side of each vertebrae. Post-zygapophyses fit on top of pre-zygapophyses of
interlocking vertebrae. In mammals the zygapophyses begin to curve, so that prezygapophysis facets curl upward & inwardly & the post-zygapophyses curl downward &
outwardly.
REGIONALIZATION OF VERTEBRAE
Fishes have 2 regions in vertebral column:
Trunk Vertebrae - with ribs attached.
Caudal Vertebrae -form the tail. They have hemal arches & large hemal spines.
Anamniote tetrapods have 4 regions in vertebral column:
Cervical Vertebra
Atlas - its large facets articulate with occipital condyles
Its called the atlas because it "supports" the head on its shoulders.
Its the only cervical vertebra present in Lissamphibians.
Trunk Vertebrae - have small ribs attached in Lissamphibians
Sacral Vertebra - only 1 in Lissamphibians. Its larger than trunk vertebrae & attaches to
pelvic girdle.
Caudal Vertebrae - typically have hemal arches & hemal spines.
Amniote tetrapods have 4 or 5 regions in the vertebral column:
Cervical Vertebra
1 atlas - its large facets articulate with occipital condyle(s)
It tends to enlarge its neural canal, lose its neural spine & possibly lose its
centrum
1 axis - it fits into the atlas; often has a large neural spine & it has an odontoid
[odon = tooth, oid = like] process (also called the dens) that allows the head to
rotate.
The cervicals have small ribs in most amniotes. The ribs fuse completely to the
cervical vertebrae in birds & mammals. Transverse foramina are visible, but not
separate ribs.
Trunk Vertebrae - archosaurs, birds & mammals have differentiated
trunk vertebrae into the following regions:
Thoracic Vertebrae - retain true ribs. They have large neural spines and
articulating facets on the sides of the centrum & on the transverse processes
where the ribs attach.
Lumbar Vertebrae - lack ribs. They have very large transverse processes & no
articulating facets.
Sacral Vertebra - 2 or more; large & attach to pelvic girdle
Caudal Vertebrae - typically have hemal arches & hemal spines. These
vertebrae are greatly reduced in size & number in birds & mammals.
RIBS
They attach to transverse processes on the vertebrae &/or facets on the centrum of the
vertebra.
STERNUM
ONLY in tetrapods, and even then may be missing or very small in a number of
tetrapods. For example, the sternum is cartilaginous & tiny in Necturus & won't be
seen in our specimens. It acts as an additional brace to attach to support the rib cage
or brace the pectoral girdle.
MEDIAN FINS
Fishes have unpaired, dorsal, anal & caudal fins on the mid-sagittal axis.
Some fishes lack anal fins, some have 2 or more dorsal or anal fins.
Identification list
Fish Vertebrae (fig. 5.4a)
Centrum
Neural arch
Neural spine
Basapophyses
Dorsal rib
Ventral rib
Amphibian Vertebrae (fig 5.9, 5.11a)
Cervical vertebra (neck)
Thoracic vertebrae (trunk)
Sacral vertebra
Transverse process
Neural spine
Prezygapophysis
Postzygapophysis
Turtle Vertebrae (fig 5.12)
Cervical vertebrae
Rib
Capitulum of rib
Thoracic vertebrae
Sacral vertebrae
Caudal vertebrae
Bird Vertebrae (fig 5.13)
cervical vertebrae
prezygapophysis
postzygapophysis
cervical rib
synsacrum
caudal vertebrae
pygostyle
Mammal Vertebrae (fig. 5.14); be able to identify on mounted and disarticulated cats as
well as on the odd assortment of loose vertebrae from various species)
Atlas
Axis
Transverse process
Transverse foramen
Odontoid process (dens)
Cervical vertebrae
Neural arch
Vertebral canal
Vertebral body (centrum)
Cranial zygapophysis
Caudal zygaphphysis
Thoracic vertebrae
Vertebral arch
Spinous process
Vertebral canal
Vertebral body
Cranial zygapophysis
Caudal zygaphphysis
Rib facet
Lumbar vertebrae
Pleuropophysis
Spinous process
Sacral vertebrae
Caudal vertebrae
Intervertebral disks
Intervertebral foramen
Vertebral (floating) rib
Head
tuberculum
Costal cartilage (sternal rib)
Bios 314L
Lab 04 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
These are the elements that form the paired, laterally placed appendages.
PECTORAL GIRDLE
Dermal
In fishes a series of bones forms an arc just behind the opercular bones of the skull, e.g.
cleithrum, clavicle & several other bones attach the pectoral girdle to the skull.
Tetrapods lose many of these bones & lose the attachment to the skull. Thus in
tetrapods, the head moves independently of the legs. Tetrapods may retain the
clavicles as paired bones that extend from the sternum towards the humerus.
Endochondral
These elements may be cartilaginous in most fishes & are called scapulocoracoid or
coracoscapula. In derived Actinopterygians (Perch), these bones will ossify forming a
more ventrally positioned coracoid & a more dorsally positioned scapulae.
In tetrapods, these elements may ossify or remain partly cartilaginous: scapula and
suprascapula will be dorsal to the humerus & the coracoid will be ventral to the
scapula and may attach to the sternum. The glenoid fossa is the socket for articulation
with the humerous
The endochondral bones hold the pectoral limb in place & tend to dominate or be the
largest elements in the pectoral girdle of tetrapods.
PELVIC GIRDLE
These are endochondral.
Fish pelvic girdles are simple rods of cartilage or bone that are suspended in muscle:
ischiopubic or pubioischiatic plates. Derived Actinopterygians moved this girdle & its
pelvic limbs forward for better braking ability. In some, the pelvic girdle is attached to the
pectoral girdle but ventral to the pectoral girdle.
ALL tetrapods (with legs) have 3 bones that form the pelvic girdle.
pubic bone or pubis - anteriorly oriented (cartilaginous in many anamniotes)
ischium - posteriorly oriented
ilium - new in tetrapods, oriented dorsally, attaches the pelvic to the sacral
vertebra(e)
PAIRED LIMBS
anterior series - humerus; radius & ulna; carpals; metacarpals; phalanges
posterior series - femur; tibia & fibula; tarsals; metatarsals; phalanges
MAMMALIAN SCAPULAR STRUCTURES
scapula spine- Unique to Therian mammals. It looks like a midline keel down the
scapulas superficial surface. The spine increases the surface area for muscles.
coracoid process-The only remnant of the posterior coracoid bone. Its size varies in
different species. It fused onto the scapula just above the articulation for
humerus.
acromion process-this is the articulation point for the clavicle. Its a projection at the
distal end of the scapular spine
HOW TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL MAMMALIAN LONG BONES
Be able to identify these individual bones from the front or back legs of diverse
mammals. These simple, helpful nontechnical hints may help you know & identify
disarticulated mammalian long bones.
humerus It has a rounded head at the proximal end, but its head is less uniformly
round, and may often be oval shaped or flattened than the head of the femur.
The head should be in line with the articulation point at the distal end.
radius
Its proximal end has a flattened, rounded disc. In ungulates, the radius is
greatly enlarged & the rounded disc is less visible.
ulna
an olecranon process, or "elbow" extends posteriorly behind ulna's articulation
with the humerus. The ulna may be large or reduced distally.
femur
It has a very round head that usually projects off the side of the main shaft on
a short "neck". Its distal articulation has 2 large condyles that are ~ at 90
degree angles to the position of the head of the femur.
tibia
The proximal end is fairly flat, with 2 facets that articulate with the femur's
distal paired condyles. The proximal end has a triangular shape because of
the anterior ridge that runs down the midline.
fibula
It articulates with the sides of the tibia so it has 2 small articulation points
along the side of the bone, near the top & bottom. The bone is often reduced
or fused onto the tibia & its articulations are small & face off to the side of the
bone.
BIO 314L Lab 05
Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy
(Axial & Appendicular) Skeletal System – bones to identify
SQUALUS (fig. 5.16, 5.29)
Cranial skeleton
olfactory/nasal capsule (often
broken),
orbital capsule (orbit)
otic capsule
occipital region
occipital condyle.
basal
Appendicular skeleton
Pectoral girdle & fin
Pelvic girdle & fin
TAXA ACTINOPTYERYGII
Amia cranial skeleton (fig. 5.30)
premaxilla
maxilla
nasal
frontal
parietal
supratemporal
post temporal
opercular
postinfraorbitals
post orbital
sub orbital
Fish Vertebrae (fig. 5.4a, 5.8)
Centrum
Neural arch
Neural spine
Basapophyses
Dorsal rib
Ventral rib
TAXA LISSAMPHIBIA
Frog (Rana
Cranial skeleton (handout)
Premaxilla
nasal
Frontoparietal
Maxilla
Pterygoid
Orbit
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Vertebrae (fig. 5.9)
Cervical vertebra (neck)
Thoracic vertebrae (trunk)
Sacral vertebra
Transverse process
Neural spine
Pre/post zygapophyses
Appendicular skeleton (fig. 5.17)
Pectoral girdle & appendage
suprascapular cartilage
humerus
radius/ulna
carpals
metacarpals
phalanges
Pelvic girdle & appendage
ilium
ischium
femur
tibia/fibula
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges
TAXON ARCHOSAURIA -- alligator
Cranial skeleton (fig. 5.32)
Nares
Premaxilla
Maxilla
Prefrontal
Frontal
Parietal
Squamosal
Foramen magnum
Dentary
Surangular
Angular
Appendicular (fig. 5.18)
Pectoral girdle & appendage
suprascapular cartilage
humerus
radius/ulna
procoracoid
carpals
metacarpals
phalanges
Pelvic girdle & appendage
ilium
ischium
femur
tibia/fibula
TAXON AVES
Vertebrae (fig. 5.13)
cervical vertebrae
prezygapophysis
postzygapophysis
cervical rib
synsacrum
caudal vertebrae
pygostyle
Appendicular skeleton (fig. 5.20)
Sternum
Keel
Furculum
Femur
TAXON TESTUDINES
Cranial skeleton (fig. 5.33)
premaxilla
maxilla
postorbital
supraoccipital
prefrontal
parietal
foramen magnum
dentary
Turtle Vertebrae (fig. 5.19)
Cervical vertebrae
Rib
Capitulum of rib
Thoracic vertebrae
Sacral vertebrae
Caudal vertebrae
Greater trochanter
Condyle
Tibiotarsus
Patella
Fibula
Tarsometatarsus
Hallux
Phalanges
Scapula
Procoracoid
Humerous
Pneumatic foramen
Ulna
Olecranon process
Radius
TAXON MAMMALIA
Cranial skeleton (cat; to include other
mammals) (fig. 5.35)
Nasal
Premaxilla
Maxilla
Orbit
Zygomatic arch
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital bone
Jugal (zygomatic)
Tympanic bulla
Sagittal crest
Sagittal suture
Coronal suture
Condyloid process
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Dentary
Canine
Incisor
Canine
Phalanx
Vertebrae (fig. 5.14)
Atlas
Axis
Transverse process
Transverse foramen
Odontoid process (dens)
Cervical vertebrae
Vertebral arch
Vertebral canal
Vertebral body (centrum)
Cranial zygapophysis
Caudal zygaphphysis
Thoracic vertebrae
Vertebral arch
Spinous process
Vertebral canal
Vertebral body
Cranial zygapophysis
Caudal zygaphphysis
Rib facet
Lumbar vertebrae
Pleuropophysis
Spinous process
Sacral vertebrae
Intervertebral foramina
Caudal vertebrae
Intervertebral disks
Intervertebral foramen
Vertebral (floating) rib
Head
tuberculum
Costal cartilage (sternal rib)
Pectoral girdle (fig. 5.22, 5.24)
scapula
coracoid process
glenoid fossa
scapular spine
acromion process
metacromion process
infraspinous fossa
supraspinous fossa
clavicle
humerus (p. 125)
greater tuberculum
head
lesser tuberculum
trochlea
capitulum
diaphysis
epiphysis
ulna (p. 127)
trochlear notch
olecranon
styloid process
radius
manus (p 128)
carpals
metacarpals
phalanges
Pelvic girdle
pelvis
ilium
acetabulum
ischium
pubis
femur
head
greater trochanter
lesser trochanter
diaphysis
epiphysis
patella
tibia
diaphysis
epiphysis
fibula
diaphysis
epiphysis
calcaneus
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges
BIOS 314L Lab 06
Musculature I
Dissect \dis-‘ekt; dỈ-sekt\ [L. dissectus, pp. of dissecare, to cut apart] (1607) 1: to
separate into pieces: expose the several parts of (as an animal) for scientific
examination. 2: to analyze and interpret minutely
While we tend to think of this laboratory exercise as mostly definition #1, we
should focus primarily on #2. CUT LESS, OBSERVE MORE.
A note on dissection: The primary objective of today and subsequent muscle laboratory
exercises is to expose, identify, and study a muscle’s origin, insertion, shape and
function. To do so requires patience. I have tried to organize the laboratory such that
you will not need to be in a hurry.
Some suggestions:
 The animals you will be working on won’t look like the diagrams. It will take care and
effort to clean the muscle and separate it from surrounding ones. Skeletal muscles
are typically connected together with fascia, light colored connective tissue. It will
take a little effort and patience to carefully remove.

Take advantage of other diagrams in addition to your lab manual. You should
appreciate the fact that not all animals look alike (inside or out), so spend some time
looking at other groups’ dissections as well.

The practical exam will be taken off of the animals that you and the other class
members dissect. Thus, it is to your best interest to take your time and do a good
job.

You should appreciate the fact that good dissection is a motor skill that must be
acquired. It will take time to develop the skills necessary to be accomplished at
separating the individual muscles and muscle fibers.
 Use the scalpel very sparingly. Scissors are only necessary to cut skin and to
transect across the belly of the muscle. Most muscles can be separated with a
blunt probe and a bit of patience.

To identify a muscle:
1. Read the description in your lab manual of the muscle’s location and function.
2. Locate the reference points on your animal
3. Look for the muscle boundaries
4. Verify the muscle boundaries with gentle, judicious use of the blunt probe
5. Finally, use the blunt probe and forceps to remove fascia and fat around the
muscle.
In today’s lab, we will be looking at the superficial axial, pectoral and hypobranchial and
branchiomeric musculature of Necturus and Felis (the mudpuppy and the cat)
You will find that amphibians, by comparison are notoriously easy to remove the skin.

There is much less connective tissue between the skin and the fascia. However,
the muscles are smaller and identification more difficult.

With Necturus, you will carefully dissect and discard the skin off the entire animal
before proceeding. Do so slowly; care should be taken not to pull muscles
off while removing the skin.

While using scissors, cut away from the animal taking care not to damage the
underlying musculature.
While there is certainly more than one way to skin a cat, most of them are bad ways.
Our goal in the mammal dissections is to keep the skin attached to some degree (in
order to keep the muscles damp). I would suggest:
1. Make a careful incision along the ventral midline from groin to chin. When
cutting through the skin, make sure your scissors are pointed away
from the animal so not to damage the internal anatomy.
2. On the left side, extend the mid-ventral incision laterally along the fore- and
hind limbs to the base of the paws.
3. Cut circularly around the base of the paws
4. Now the skin can carefully be freed from the underlying tissue all the way to
the dorsal midline.
5. For portions of today’s lab, you will additionally want to make an incision
along the ventral throat midline and reflect the skin up along the face, just
caudal to the eye and along the dorsal midline
6. Try to not let your specimen dry out. There are spray bottles of wetting
solution around. Use them!
In today’s lab, we will focus mostly on the axial, pectoral and head and neck
musculature. As in the past weeks, we may toss out some of these terms that I’m
asking you to identify. However, what follows is a list that I hope we will be able to work
through, as they represent much of the fundamental musculature:
Necturus (fig. 6.11, 6.12, 6.14)
Ventral pectoral girdle, forelimb, and throat
pectoralis
rectus abdominus (just caudal – originates on the linea alba). Together, these two
muscles converge laterally on the humerus.
supracoracoideus
procoracohumeralis – inserts proximally on the humerus
rectus cervicis – the ventral neck muscles
humeroantebrachialis (anterior to) coracobrachialis – upper arm muscles
intermandibularis – thin sheet overlying the anterior ventral throat
interhyoideus – often indistiguishable from intermandibularis; posterior throat
on one side, cut through the intermandibularis/interhyoideous. below should be able to
identify the
geniohyoideus
branchiohyoideus
lateral pectoral girdle, forelimb and lateral head
dorsalis scapulae and latissimus dorsi – converges onto shoulder near scapula and
humerus
dorsalis trunci
triceps brachii
forearm extensors and flexors
depressor mandibulae
levator mandibulae externus
levator mandibulae anterior
Felis (fig. 6.15, 6.16, 6.17)
be able to identify the function and/or the origin and insertion, as well as the location of:
superficial pectoral musculature
pectoralis
pectoralis superficialis (pectoralis major of humans)
pectoralis profundus (pectoralis minor of humans)
cleidobrachialis (palpate the clavicle within)
(lateral view works better here)
trapezious
thoracic trapezius (thin sheet covering latissimus dorsi)
cervical trapezius
latissimus dorsi
sternomastoid
triceps brachii
forearm extensors
forearm flexors
head and neck musculature
sternomastoid (be careful with the jugular vein not to cut it)
sternohyoid
masseter
temporalis
digastric
BIOS 314L Lab 07
Entire Vocabulary list for external musculature
Necturus (fig. 6.11, 6.12, 6.14)
Ventral pectoral girdle, forelimb, and throat
pectoralis
rectus abdominus (just caudal – originates on the linea alba). Together, these two
muscles converge laterally on the humerus.
supracoracoideus
procoracohumeralis – inserts proximally on the humerus
rectus cervicis – the ventral neck muscles
humeroantebrachialis (anterior to) coracobrachialis – upper arm muscles
intermandibularis – thin sheet overlying the anterior ventral throat
interhyoideus – often indistiguishable from intermandibularis; posterior throat
on one side, cut through the intermandibularis/interhyoideous. below should be able
to identify the
geniohyoideus
branchiohyoideus
lateral pectoral girdle, forelimb and lateral head
dorsalis scapulae and latissimus dorsi – converges onto shoulder near scapula and
humerus
dorsalis trunci
triceps brachii
forearm extensors and flexors
depressor mandibulae
levator mandibulae externus
levator mandibulae anterior
axial musculature, pelvic girdle (fig 7-17, 7-18)
epaxial musculature
hypaxial musculature
rectus abdominis
puboischiofemoralis externus
puboischiotibialis
leg extensors
leg flexors
dorsalis trunci
Felis
be able to identify the function and/or the origin and insertion, as well as the location of:
superficial pectoral musculature (fig. 6.15, 6.17)
pectoralis
pectoralis superficialis (pectoralis major of humans)
pectoralis profundus (pectoralis minor of humans)
cleidobrachialis (palpate the clavicle within)
(lateral view works better here)
trapezious
latissimus dorsi
sternomastoid
triceps brachii
forearm extensors
forearm flexors
head and neck musculature (fig. 6.16, 6.17, 6.19)
sternomastoid (be careful with the jugular vein not to cut it)
sternohyoid
masseter
temporalis
digastric
trunk musculature (fig. 6.15, 6.17)
external oblique
latissimus dorsi
pelvic and thigh musculature (figs. 6.22, 6.23)
gluteus medius/superficialis
biceps femoris
semitendinosus
gracilis
sartorius
gastrocnemius
extensor digitorum longus
tendons of extensor digitorum longus
tibialis anterior
BIOS 314L Circulation
Lab 08
Objectives
1. Be able to trace the movement of blood in Squalus from the heart to the
respiratory surfaces (gills) and back to the heart. Be able to describe the
basic flow of blood in Squalus
2. Recognize and identify the heart and its major vessels in Felis. Be able to
describe the basic flow of blood through a ‘typical’ mammal
3. Trace the flow of blood through the mammalian heart and dissect and identify
the major components of the heart.
1. Gill circulation in Squalus
Follow the dissection guide starting on p. 140 of your lab manual. You will want your
dissection to roughly correspond with the figure on p. 142. Once the pharynx has been
carefully opened, turn to p. 141. Read through this as you dissect and identify the terms
listed below.
Useful diagrams (including handouts):
Fig 8.2, 8.4 – ventral view of heart and afferent arteries
Fig 8.3 – branchial arches
Identification
Sinus venosus
Atrium
Ventricle
Conus arteriosus
Ventral aorta
Afferent branchial arteries (1-5)
Efferent branchial arteries
Dorsal aorta
2. The heart and its major vessels in Felis
Follow the dissection guide starting on p. 151. Retract and/or remove the rib
cage and expose the cat similar to fig. 8.10 & 8.11 on p. 153/1154.
Identification
Rt. Atrium
Rt. Ventricle
Coronary vein
Coronary artery
Pulmonary trunk
Left ventricle
Left atrium
Pulmonary arteries/veins
Aortic arch
Descending aorta
Brachiocephalic artery
Common carotid artery
External jugular vein
Subclavian vein
Brachiocephalic vein
Cranial (pre) vena cava
Caudal (post) vena cava
3. Internal structure of the heart. See Fig 8.7, p. 148
Identification
Pulmonary semi-lunar valve
Tricuspid valve (rt. A-V)
Bicuspid (left A-V)
Chordae tendineae
Interventricular septum
Semilunar valves
Be able to trace the flow of blood through
the heart.
Bios 314/514
Lab 09 peripheral vasculature
Last week, we identified the pump (heart) and the major entrances and exits. This week, we
want to further identify the peripheral vasculature. Since we’re done with the muscles, you may
find it helpful to start carefully removing the musculature.
Find the cranial vena cava. Coming into this, locate:
subclavian vein
axillary vein
subscapular vein
internal jugular vein
external jugular vein
maxillary (posterior facial)
linguofacial (anterior facial)
transverse jugular (may be broken)
Find the caudal vena cava. As it passes through the diaphragm, identify the phrenic vein.
renal vein
ovarian vein (often not found in these preps)
external and internal iliac vein
femoral
lumbar
Find the aortic arch. From that, there are two branches, the brachiocephalic and left
subclavian. Figs. 8.10, 8.11, 8.13
From the brachiocephalic follow and identify:
left carotid artery
right carotid artery
right subclavian artery
brachial artery
axillary artery
subscapular
Find the dorsal aorta. From there, identify
celiac artery
renal artery
ovarian artery
lumbar
external iliac artery
internal iliac artery
femoral
Lab 10 Urogenital system
From identifying the peripheral circulation last week, you should be relatively familiar
with the vasculature surrounding the urogenital system. Review last week’s lab, and
follow the circulation into the renal and reproductive systems.
Squalus (Fig 9.3, 9.4)
The pelvic fins of males posses enlarged medial bars, the claspers, derived from
pterygiophores. The medial side bears a groove that carries seminal fluid during
copulation. Nearly all of our Squalus specimens are males. In your shark, remove and
discard the liver by cutting the lobes. Then identify the location and function of the
following:
Testis
Ductus deferens (deposits into archinephric duct)
Seminal vesicles
Sperm sac
Leydig’s gland
Kidney (cut through parietal peritoneum)
Mesonephric duct (drains kidney)
Cloaca
Necturus (Figs. 9.5, 9.6)
The kidneys and the arrangement of the associated ducts are similar in Squalus and
Necturus. Both the shark and the mudpuppy posess opisthonephric kidneys. As in
the male shark, the ductus deferens serves in transport of sperm and seminal fluids.
Unlike the shark, Necturus has urinary collecting tubules to transport urine from the
kidneys into the ductus deferens. In addition to the components described above,
identify in your mudpuppy the testis, epididymus, urinary bladder, and cloaca.
Felis (Fig 9.7, 9.8) – everyone probably has female Felis….some folks hopefully
still have the urogenital system intact. We may need to share cats today, as some
folks have already removed the reproductive tracts.
From the hilus (medial indentation of kidney), trace ureter down to urinary bladder.
Arising from the medial indentation (hilus) on each kidney is a thin white tube, the ureter
that passes posteriorly to the base of the muscular urinary bladder. The bladder
narrows into the urethra. Be careful to not damage the uterus when tracing the
location of the ureters. There is generally a great deal of fat lying within the ovaries and
reproductive tract.
To follow the reproductive tract further, cut through the pubic and ishial symphyses with
heavy scissors. Spread the cut by pressing the knees of the cat laterally.
From the urethra and vaginal vestibule, trace the reproductive tract back to the body
of the uterus. Identify the uterine horns, and, if injected properly, the oviducts and
ovaries.
the mammalian kidney
In lecture, we will talk much more about the internal anatomy and design of the
vertebrate kidney. For this part of the lab, I want you to become familiar with the internal
and external anatomy (Fig 9.8; handout). in the larger kidneys provided, recognize and
identify the ureter and hilus of the kidney. Carefully section the kidney into two halves
and identify the cortex, medulla, renal pelvis. You should be able to identify the renal
artery and its vasculature. We will talk in lecture about the flow of blood through the
kidney and functional anatomy.
Introduction to the Nervous System
Bios 314L Lab 11
Today's Objectives:
1) identify the major divisions of the brain and compare across Squalus and Homo
2) compare the relatives sizes and proportions of the human and shark brain
The human brains are on the cart and available to you. PLEASE BE CAREFUL IN
HANDLING THEM!!!
To dissect the Squalus (fig. 10.6, 10.7), most of the roof of the chondrocranium will
have to be removed. Do so carefully and don't cut the white 'strings' that pass through
the various foramen.
a) remove the skin over the head and snout
b) clear away the watery tissue and remove the upper eyelids
c) be careful not to damage the superficial opthalmic nerve if possible
d) pick away the chondocranium near the orbit
e) remove the skin around the spiracle, be careful not to damage the
hyomandibular nerve along the posterior of the spiracle
f) remove enough of the axial muscles to the chondrocranium to expose it
g) carefully pick away the roof of the chondocranium
h) carefully remove the sides.
be careful not to damage the soft brain tissue or the nerves!
i) dissect out the first few spinal nerve roots
j) carefully free and remove the entire brain and first part of the spinal cord
if you're not sure what to do let me help you with this part!
Note: there are human brains already in mid sagittal section. DO NOT cut any human
brains!! However, you may cut the sheep brain directly down the longitudinal fissure
(fig. 10.12, 10.13, 10.14)
Identify:
SHARK & Necturus BRAIN
olfactory lobe
telencephalon (cerebrum)
thalamus
hypothalamus
pons
optic lobe
optic chiasms
cerebellum
medulla
Cranial nerves I, II, V, VI, VII-IX
spinal cord
dorsal root
ventral root
SHEEP & HUMAN BRAIN (*only)
olfactory lobe
telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres)
frontal, parietal, temporal, & occipital* lobes
of the cerebrum
central sulcus (btwn frontal & parietal)
thalamus
hypothalamus
pons
optic lobe
cerebellum
medulla
inferior colliculus
superior colliculus (optic tectum)
corpus callosum
optic chiasm
Questions to answer:
1) what is the relative proportion of brain sizes for the following:
Squalus optic tectum vs. Homo superior colliculus
Squalus cerebellum vs. Homo vs. Sheep cerebellum?
Squalus cerebrum vs. Homo cerebrum
2) why the differences in proportion?
3) what is the difference in function between the dorsal and ventral roots of the
spinal cord
4) where might information travel to get from one hemisphere of the mammal
brain to the other?
5) what is the difference in shape between the human cerebellum and the shark?
why?
Nervous System II
Bios 314L
Objectives:
1. Identify and recognize the subdivisions and further anatomical components
of the vertebrate brain
2. Identify the three dimensional arrangement of the internal components of the
telencephalon and diencephalon of the sheep and human
3. Identify the size differences and reason for them, in the mammalian spinal
cord
4. Identify the internal components of the sheep kidney (that we didn’t get done
a couple of weeks ago).
5. Review for lab practical.
1. Attached to this handout are two pages of worksheets. Identify the unlabeled
components and make sure you can identify the corresponding components on the
shark, cat, sheep and human.
2. Get another sheep brain from the brain bucket. One member of your group will
make a series of horizontal sections, roughly 1/4” thick with the brain knife (don’t use
your scalpel, it won’t cut smooth enough to recognize the info you’ll need). Identify:
 Gray matter
 White matter
 Lateral ventricle
 Third ventricle
 Internal capsule
 Thalamus
 Caudate
 Putamen
Compare these structures with the human sections (either the preserved ones or
the ones encased in plastic).
3. Assuming my dissections of the cat brain and spinal cord were successful, otherwise
use the human spinal cord, identify
 where the spinal cord begins and the medulla ends
 Cervical spinal cord
 Cervical enlargement
 Thoracic spinal cord
 Lumbar enlargement
 Sacral spinal cord
Why are there differences in size and shape for these different regions?