Law, Legislation and Policy – Professor Tim Richards
Fall 2008
Driedger’s Modern Principle..............................................................................................................3
A. Entire Context ....................................................................................................................................... 3
B. Grammatical and Ordinary Sense ......................................................................................................... 3
C. Harmonious with the ............................................................................................................................ 3
1. Scheme of the act .......................................................................................................................... 3
2. Object of the act ............................................................................................................................ 4
3. Intention of the Parliament ........................................................................................................... 4
Institutional Framework (Module 1) ..................................................................................................5
Critique on Statutory Interpretation (Module 4) ................................................................................6
Ruth Sullivan – The Plain Meaning Rule and Other Ways to Cheat at S.I ................................................. 6
Neil Brooks – Appropriate Role of Courts in Interpreting Legislation ....................................................... 6
Statutory and Common Law Presumptions (Module 5) ......................................................................8
Ambiguity .................................................................................................................................................. 8
Interpretation Acts .................................................................................................................................... 8
A. Tense ............................................................................................................................................. 8
B. Singular/plural ............................................................................................................................... 8
C. Definitions ..................................................................................................................................... 8
D. Gender ........................................................................................................................................... 8
E. Referential Incorporation .............................................................................................................. 8
F. Powers ........................................................................................................................................... 8
G. Computation of Time Periods........................................................................................................ 8
H. Calculating Age .............................................................................................................................. 9
Components of a statute .......................................................................................................................... 9
1. Title ................................................................................................................................................ 9
2. Purpose Section ............................................................................................................................. 9
3. Preamble ....................................................................................................................................... 9
4. Definitions ..................................................................................................................................... 9
5. Heading and Marginal Notes ......................................................................................................... 9
6. Punctuations ................................................................................................................................ 10
7. Schedules ..................................................................................................................................... 10
8. Bilingual Statutes ......................................................................................................................... 10
Previous Interpretations ......................................................................................................................... 10
Common Law Principles and Presumptions ............................................................................................ 10
1. Associated Meaning “noscitur socciis”........................................................................................ 10
2. Rule of Effectivity......................................................................................................................... 10
3. Ejusdem Generis .......................................................................................................................... 10
4. Expressio Unius ............................................................................................................................ 10
5. Presumption against Retroactivity .............................................................................................. 11
6. Interference with Vested Rights .................................................................................................. 11
7. Territorial Application.................................................................................................................. 11
1
8. Presumption for Particular Areas of Law .................................................................................... 11
Temporal Issues (Module 6) ............................................................................................................ 12
Coming Into Force ................................................................................................................................... 12
Repeal...................................................................................................................................................... 12
1. No “Revival” – BCIA s.35(1)(a) ..................................................................................................... 12
2. Lawful Acts Not Affected – BCIA s.35(1)(b) ................................................................................. 12
3. Protection For “Accrued or Accruing Rights” – BCIA s.35(1)(c) ................................................... 12
4. Offences – BCIA s.35(1)(d) ........................................................................................................... 12
5. Proceedings – BCIA s.35(1)(e) & s.35(2) ...................................................................................... 12
Repeal & Replacement ............................................................................................................................ 12
1. Personnel – BCIA s.36(1)(a) ......................................................................................................... 12
2. Proceedings – BCIA s.36(1)(b)...................................................................................................... 12
3. Procedures – BCIA s.36(1)(c) ....................................................................................................... 13
4. Mitigated Penalty – BCIA s.36(1)(d) ............................................................................................ 13
5. Regulation – BCIA S.36(1)(e) ........................................................................................................ 13
6. Referential Incorporation – BCIA s.36(1)(f) ................................................................................. 13
Temporal Operation and Application ..................................................................................................... 13
A. Definitions ................................................................................................................................... 13
B. Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 13
C. Presumptions............................................................................................................................... 14
D. Policy Considerations .................................................................................................................. 14
Subordinate Legislation (Module 7) ................................................................................................. 15
Instruments of a Legislative Nature ........................................................................................................ 15
Instruments of an Administrative Nature ............................................................................................... 15
Regulations vs. Directives ....................................................................................................................... 15
Constitutional Grounds ........................................................................................................................... 16
2
see
Ambiguity
Driedger’s Modern Principle

“…the words of an Act are to be read in their entire context and in their grammatical
and ordinary sense harmoniously with the scheme of the Act, the object of the Act, and
the intention of Parliament.”
A. Entire Context


see
Components
of a statute






Economic & social realities (NAV Can.)
Other statutes, reg. schemes (NAV Can.)
o horizontal coherence - in pari materia statutes
o vertical coherence
a) constitution trumps everything
b) subordinate legislation consistent w/ enabling statute
c) federal over provincial legislation
d) human rights over general legislation
o international law – try to be consistent but little importance (Baker)
Area specific legal principles (Merk – “up the ladder”; Sharp – child pornography)
Entire act: purpose, object
meaning & internal consistency
Specific section
Policy considerations
Legislative history (Rizzo, Merk)
o transitional provisions
explicit: use both present & past tense
o remedial: Δ in wording = Δ in effect (SFU)
implicit: a) ambiguity or uncertainty in
declaratory: Δ in wording ≠ Δ in effect (BCIA s.37(2))
former act; and b) courts could have
Parliamentary history (re: Firearms), in descending weight:
arrived at same interpretation
1) briefing notes
2) alternative drafts of the statute
3) house committee reports
4) Hansard (Rizzo)  frail
5) Press releases
B. Grammatical and Ordinary Sense




Ontario Mushroom; Shaklee – “meal test” for definition of food
Plain meaning approach (McIntosh)  a secondary principle
“Where the language of the statute is plain and admits of only one meaning, the task of
interpretation does not arise.”
Dictionaries (McIntosh, dissent; Riddell)  used with caution
Bilingual versions (NAV Can., Medovarski)  narrower meaning; legislative intent
see ParticularC. Harmonious with the
1. Scheme of the act
Areas of Law
o benefit-conferring  broad, generous interpretation
 ambiguity resolved in favour of claimant
3
o penal statute  strict construction and application to favour the dft. (McIntosh)
o regulatory statute (Merk), municipal leg. (Rascal)  broad and purposive approach
2. Object of the act
Purposive Approach
3. Intention of the Parliament
o mischief rule (Heydon)
“suppress the mischief to which the statute was designed to resolve”
o remedial – BCIA s.8 (Rizzo, Merk)
“fair, large and liberal interpretation that best achieves its objects”
 Absurdity
(McIntosh)
o 4 grounds (Côté in Rizzo)

If
the language is clear and unambiguous,
a) ridiculous or frivolous consequences
the plain meaning should be adopted no
b) extremely unreasonable or inequitable
matter how harsh or absurd the result
c) illogical or incoherent
d) incompatible with other provisions,
 Parliament has the right to legislate
or object of legislature
illogically
4
Institutional Framework (Module 1)
What it does
Legislative Branch
Executive Branch
Judicial Branch
Makes law
Administers and
implements law
Interprets and applies law
Monarch
Monarch
Monarch
Governor Lieutenant
General
General
Roles
G.G.
L.G
S.C.C.
P.M.
Premier
C.A.
Cabinet
Cabinet
Provincial Military Federal
Parliament
Senate
Legislature
Bureaucracy
HoC
(House of Commons)
Accountability
Electors
Legislature
(Principle of Responsible
Government)
Power
Limited By
Constitution s.91, 92
Constitution/Delegation
Democratic government
Principles
Parliamentary Supremacy
(less force now; replaced
by Constitutional Supre.)
Delegated Authority
- exercises power
conferred to it by the
legislature
Royal Prerogative
- power from the monarch
- fairly limited
5
Internal
(Appeal Process)
Constitution/Legislature
Separation of Power
Judicial Independence
Critique on Statutory Interpretation (Module 4)
Ruth Sullivan – The Plain Meaning Rule and Other Ways to Cheat at S.I
Two assumptions:
1. plain meaning exists in legislative texts
2. legislatures have intentions when they enact legislation
Advantages
Plain Meaning Rule
 certainty – safe to trust law as it is
written
 formal equality – plain meaning is the
same for everyone
 neutral proxy for strict construction
 text selection – choose which text to
be interpreted
 Co-Text – can affect meaning of a text
or how “plain” it is by shrinking or
Judicial Tricks
expanding the co-text
 Shifting Meaning – plain meaning may
mean:
- dictionary
- literal or facial
- intended
- audience-based
- applied
Legislative Intent
 separation of power – adheres to
legislature
 supports positivist view – law is what
legislature enacts
 presumed that the context in which
the law was enacted is the same as the
context it now operates in (Brooks)
 original meaning rule is relied on to
justify the outcome
 distinguish drafting error from
legislative intent
 doctrine of presumed intent –
presumes that legislature is reasonable
and wants to avoid absurdity and
injustice
Brooks:
 If the judge declares the meaning plain
 legislature may not have read the bill
then it must be
 Texts do not contain meaning;
meaning must be inferred by readers
 when the apparent meaning of a text
produces an unacceptable result,
judges are free to abandon the plain
meaning rule
 conflicting intentions among MPs
 impossible to verify intention
 intention is not voted onillegitimate
 difficult to construct the past w/o
present influence
Recommendations: make judicial decisions an additional source of law
Neil Brooks – Appropriate Role of Courts in Interpreting Legislation
SI approaches must be consistent with:
 notions of democracy
 rule of law: accessibility, certainty and predictability
 relative institutional competence of legislatures and courts
6
Recommendation: consequentialist approach
 judges weigh the consequences of alternative applications of the statute and will use information
from the legislative record to assist in analysing the appropriateness of the consequences
 more emphasis on facts and policy than purposive approach
 Sullivan: pragmatic approach
- interpretation must be justified in terms of a) plausibility (compliance with legislative text); b)
efficacy (promotion of legislative intent); and c) acceptability (compliance with legal norms –
reasonable and justice)
- what is the goal? if policy concerns, then same as consequentialist app.
7
Statutory and Common Law Presumptions (Module 5)
Ambiguity
- interpretive principles do not apply absent ambiguity (McIntosh; Bell)
- cannot be assumed from mere fact that several courts, or several doctrinal writers differ in
interpretation of a provision (Bell)
1) ambiguity must be “real” – reasonably capable of more than one meaning
2) must consider the “entire context”
3) arises only when two or more plausible readings, each equally in accordance with the intention of
the statute.
Interpretation Acts
A. Tense (BCIA s.8; IA s.10)
- “always speaking”
- adapt to new circumstances unforeseen at time of enactment
B. Singular/plural interchangeable (BCIA s.28(3); IA s.33(2))
C. Definitions, apply to
- entire statute and all regulations under it (BCIA s. 12,13; IA s.15,16)
- all grammatical forms of a word (BCIA s. 28(4); IA s.33(3))
D. Gender (BCIA s.28(2); IA s.33(1))
- include both gender and corporations
E. Referential Incorporation
- pulling provisions of secondary statute into primary statute
- sec. stat. applies with necessary changes (BCIA s.44)
- repeal & replacement of sec. stat. ambulatory  pri. stat. also changes (BCIA s.36(1)(f))
 may argue “contrary intention” to reject application of ambulatory rule keep original wording
- repeal of sec. stat.  old meaning survives
F. Powers
- appointment of public officers (BCIA s.22; IA s.24)
- delegation of powers (BCIA s.23)
G. Computation of Time Periods (BCIA s.25)
- exclude 1st day, include last day
e.g. Sept 1 + 21 days = Sept 22
- “clear, at least, not less than”  exclude both 1st & last day
e.g. = Sept 23
- holidays usually included
 may be excluded if appropriate; e.g. contract for road project
- expiration day falls on holiday  moves to next day that is not a holiday
8
H. Calculating Age
- age is reached at start of anniversary of birth date
Components of a statute
1. Title
- part of a statute, binding
- may indicate object, purpose, or meaning of the statute
- Lane – “suppression” in title implies criminal provision
- Committee for the Commonwealth – title “commercial and other operations” means activities
regulated are of commercial nature
2. Purpose Section
- binding statements
- limited use, because
a) over general statements
b) sometimes set out competing principles or policies (R. v. T. – Young Offenders Act)
- limits jurisdiction (Paccar – board exceeded mandate set out in purpose stmt.)
- clearly-written provision out weighs purpose stmt. (Potato Marketing Council)
3. Preamble
- may indicate the mischief or purpose of the legislation
- provide guidelines on stat. interp.
- constitutional purposes (Anti-Inflation Act – preamble asserts crisis conditions)
4. Definitions
- if no definition  examine in pari materia statute (no application if legislature diff.)
 another statute enacted by the same legislature
- “means”: exhaustive
“includes”: non-exhaustive
5. Heading and Marginal Notes
- not part of enactment; for reference only
- headings  may be referred if there is doubtful expression (Basaraba)
 not determinative (Lohnes)
influence of headings depend on: (Wigglesworth)
a) degree of ambiguity or obscurity of the section
b) length and complexity of the provision
c) homogeneity of provision under the heading
d) generic terminology in the heading
e) presence of system of headings
f) terminology in the heading v. substance of provision
9
- marginal notes  not to be relied upon (Basaraba)
6. Punctuations
- should be taken into account
except when it would produce absurd result (Jaagusta; Popoff)
7. Schedules
- part of the statute, binding
- less weight than actual text
8. Bilingual Statutes
- equally authentic, equally authoritative, equally binding
- neither has primacy over the other
Previous Interpretations
1. Judicial Decisions
- provided there was no amendment
- depend on date of case, jurisdiction, and court level
2. Administrative Interpretations – simply policy, non-binding
a) administrative tribunal decisions
 court often defer to its specialized knowledge and experience
b) interpretations by civil servants and ministers
 effective until challenged by court
 consider the effect of rejection: may invalidate previous decisions or cause major reallocation of
resources
3. Texts – admissible for guidance
Common Law Principles and Presumptions
1. Associated Meaning “noscitur socciis”
- words linked by “and”, “or” are interpreted by their common feature (McDiarmid Lumber)
- effect: scope of broader term limited to that of the narrower term
2. Rule of Effectivity
- presumption: legislature avoids superfluous or meaningless words (McDiarmid Lumber)
3. Ejusdem Generis
- a general phrase takes its meaning from the specific words that precede it (Rascal)
- two qualifications:
a) there must be a common denominator among preceding words
without com. d.  give ordinary, broader meaning
b) previous terms do not exhaust the general phrase – rule of effectivity (Rascal)
4. Expressio Unius
- express mention of one thing excludes all others by necessary implication
10
- three exceptions (Children’s Aid Society – inclusion of rights w/o responsibilities):
a) express mention used to emphasize or out of excessive caution
b) express reference necessary or appropriate in one context but not in another
c) in some context, not excluded = included
5. Presumption against Retroactivity
6. Interference with Vested Rights
7. Territorial Application
- presumed not to have extra-territorial effect
may be overcome by clear language to the contrary
8. Presumption for Particular Areas of Law
1) Legislation affecting individual rights  strict construction (Bell)
- personal liberty, security or well-being
- freedom of commerce
- access to courts
- rights of natural justice
2) Property rights
- strictly construed in favour of property owner
- assume: no expropriation without compensation
3) Criminal Law
- strict construction of penal provisions
 subsidiary role to s.12 of IA (remedial) – “even with penal statutes, real intention the legislature
must be sought, and the meaning compatible with its goals applied” (Côté in Hasselwander)
 applicable only when neutral interpretation according to s.12 still leave reasonable doubt
(Hasselwander)
4) Human Rights
- interpreted as to advance the broad policy considerations underlying it
- interpreted in a manner befitting the special nature of the legislation
- be given such fair, large and liberal interpretation as will best ensure the attainment of their
objects
- strict grammatical approach inappropriate
- Jubran: s. 8 of Human Rights Code, discrimination based on sexual orientation  focus on the
result or effect of the action complained of, rather than the class of individuals protected
5) Taxation Statutes
- cautious approach to interpretation, due to complexity of policy and principles
- absent clear statutory language, no judicial innovation (Ludco)
- textual interpretation over Driedger/purposive approach (Imperial Oil)
6) Municipal Law
11
- broad, purposive approach
- municipals be given more flexibility
7) Professional Bodies
- strict construction of statutes creating professional monopolies (Laporte)  permit any activity not
clearly prohibited (Infomap)
- construed according to a reasonable and business interpretation
- emphasize policy considerations, what’s better for the public (MacDonald)
- Driedger applies (MacDonald)
Temporal Issues (Module 6)
Coming Into Force
1. By Royal Consent
- applies when the bill is silent (BCIA s.3(2); IA s.5(2))
2. By proclamation of the Governor in Council or Lieutenant-Governor in Council
 Once a statute is enacted, it may be referred to for interpretation purposes, even though it has not
yet commenced.
 commences: beginning of the day of CIF
 ceases to have effect: end of the day of repeal
Repeal
1. No “Revival” – BCIA s.35(1)(a)
- presumption: common law rule before Act is not revived
- however, court may still choose to revive it
2. Lawful Acts Not Affected – BCIA s.35(1)(b)
- cannot challenge lawful action taken under the act
3. Protection For “Accrued or Accruing Rights” – BCIA s.35(1)(c)
- does not affect right or obligation acquired, accrued, accruing or incurred under the act
4. Offences – BCIA s.35(1)(d)
- offences committed prior to repeal may still be prosecuted
- however, Crown usually elects not to proceed with the charge
5. Proceedings – BCIA s.35(1)(e) & s.35(2)
- investigation, proceeding or remedy for vested rights or offence under the statute may be
initiated, continued, or enforced after its repeal
Repeal & Replacement
1. Personnel – BCIA s.36(1)(a)
- appointments continue under new act
2. Proceedings – BCIA s.36(1)(b)
- continued in conformity with new act
12
3. Procedures – BCIA s.36(1)(c)
- conform with new act
4. Mitigated Penalty – BCIA s.36(1)(d)
- if punishment varies between time of commission of offence and time of sentencing, the lesser
punishment applies (also 11(i) of Charter)
- cannot be found guilty of an offence if not an offence at time of occurrence (11(g) of Charter)
5. Regulation – BCIA S.36(1)(e)
- continue in force under the new act so long as it is consistent with the new provisions
6. Referential Incorporation – BCIA s.36(1)(f)
- reference to former act replaced by reference to new act
- no corresponding provision  former definition continues
Temporal Operation and Application
A. Definitions
Temporal Operation
Temporal Application
CIF
Repeal
act/provision

Temp. Operation – the period during which the legislation is legally effective.

Temp. Application – range of facts to which legislation may appropriately be applied.
e.g. “Any person who is convicted of a criminal offence is ineligible to be called to the Bar.” Does
the legislation apply to someone who was convicted before the enactment of this law?

Retroactive Appl. – operates as of a time prior to enactment.


Retrospective Appl. – attaches future legal effects to a past event.
Immediate Appl. – attached future legal effects to an ongoing situation, such as a
status/condition, or an incomplete series of events.
Vested Rights – concrete rights (interests or expectations) held by particular persons in
particular circumstance
 must be “sufficiently crystallized”
 Côté: the legal situation must
1) be tangible and concrete rather than general and abstract; and
2) have been sufficiently construed at the time of new statute’s commencement
 necessarily or inevitably; will, rather than may, in time accrue (Scott)
 intention, entitlement, possibility NOT sufficient

1. Is there an accrued right?
a) What is the right claimed?
b) What is the relevant provision?
c) What are the necessary preconditions for acquiring the
right?
d) What steps have been taken by the appellant?
e) The tests (see definition of Vested Right)
2.
Source of Right
13
a) Common Law
b) Statutory  s.35, 36 of BCIA on repeal and replacement
3. If accrued, is it overridden by statute?
 ambiguity?
 clear legislative intent?
B. Methodology
Step 1: Date of Commence
Step 2: Identify relevant facts and conditions
Step 3: Situate those facts in time
Step 4: Complete/ongoing/or not yet commenced?
Step 5: Interference with vested rights?
Step 6: Rebuttal for application
C. Presumptions
Charter of Rights and Freedom
- does not apply retroactively or retrospectively
- no vested right in Charter rights or freedom
- applies to immediately to continuing or ongoing situations
Presumption
Against
Retroactive
Application
Strength Application
Retrospective
Application
Weak
Immediate
Application
Interference
with Vested
Rights
None
Strong
Weak
Rebuttal
 ALWAYS presumed against; onus
on appellant to prove otherwise
(Gustavson)
 Allowed if benefits > harms
e.g. fiscal leg.; declaratory leg.
No presumption against for:
1) procedural law
- does not affect substantive
rights; merely modalities
- look at impact of provision
2) beneficial legislation
3) public protection law
- e.g. disqualification due to
convictions, bankruptcy
 Applies to a status or condition
 Does not apply to a single event
Gustavson: only if legislation is
 ambiguous
 reasonably susceptible of two
constructions
Most statutes interfere with rights
no vested right to continuance of
law (Gustavson)
Must crystallize  inevitable
Legislative intent: express or implied
Degree of surprise
Degree of fairness (detrimental
reliance)
Can be rebutted w/o express words
(Larsen – right to sue taken away)
D. Policy Considerations
1. Rule of Law
- law should be certain, predictable, stable, rational and equal
- retroactivity problematic: have to know the law to obey it
2. Fairness
- retroactive/retrospective appl.  unfair
- immediate appl.  fair: often still possible to adjust and obey the law
- Charter Sect.7: can resist retroactive or retrospective appl. if threatens life, liberty or security of
person
3. Protection of Property (including rights of action)
4. Impact of Application
14
- MacKenzie: not retroactive  would destroy pension fund’s integrity
Subordinate Legislation (Module 7)




enacted by bodies that have been delegated legislative powers by Parliament or Legislatures
most common: regulations
include: by-laws, rules, orders, and proclamations
have the same force of law
Instruments of a Legislative Nature
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Regulations
Orders – more limited scope; affect small number of persons
Decrees – used exclusively in Quebec
Rules – procedures in courts or tribunals
Tariffs
By-laws – made by municipal corporations
Letters patent – used to created a corporation and authorize it to engage in certain acitivities
Instruments of an Administrative Nature
Directives (Dussault and Borgeat)
- “rule of conduct of an internal nature...”: guides for civil servants
- “…pursuant to a general power of control…”: implicit authority
-“…to structure the actions of subordinates…”, to ensure
a) uniformity in common activities
b) uniformity, consistency predictability of interpretation and application of law
c) transparency of decision-making
- “…subject to an administrative and non-judicial sanction”: not law, thus not enforceable
Regulations vs. Directives
Considerations:
 Canada Interpretation Act – definition of “regulation”
 Enabling Provision
- explicit limitations in the wording (Oldman River – “the Minister may…establish guidelines”)
- may be expressed in specific terms
 Context
- delegated power may be narrowed by contextual analysis (Anti-Poverty – general enabling clause
but power limited by context and purpose of the Act)
e.g. other sections of the act
 Legislative intent (Oldman River – Parliament intended to adopt a binding regulatory scheme)
Presumptions:
 broad grants of delegated power  regulations are rarely found to be invalid by courts (Guzman)
 regulation may be invalid if there is a conflict between express language of enabling clause and a
regulation under it
15
Constitutional Grounds
1. Division of power – regulation ultra vires if beyond authority of the delegator
2. Charter of Rights and Freedom, Aboriginal Rights
- regulations must conform with the Charter and Aboriginal Rights
3. Henri VIII clauses
- regulation with the power to amend an Act
- legally permissible (Re: Gray)  legislature may repeal the authority at any time
- need express intent to delegate such authority (Waddell)
16