Gestalt Theory
Theory: Gestalt Theory
Theorist: Max Wertheimer
Max Wertheimer was born on April 15, 1880 in Prague. He began his educational
pursuits studying law, but after two years decided that philosophy was his calling. He moved to
Berlin where he received his doctoral degree in 1904 (summa cum laude) from the University of
Wurzburg. In 1910 he went to the University of Frankfurt’s Psychological Institute for further
training. In 1912 he published the results of his stroboscope work titled, “Experimental Studies
of the Perception of Movement”. During that same year the University of Frankfurt offered him
lectureship. In 1922 he received an assistant professorship in Berlin, and then in 1925 he
returned to Frankfurt and accepted a professorship. (Boeree)
Wertheimer was not an avid writer so he communicated his theory with colleagues
through conversation and seminars. In 1933 Wertheimer being a German Jew lost his job at the
university as a result of the purging of Jews set forth by Hitler. He left Germany and moved to
New York City to the “New School for Social Research” which was created for refugee scholars.
He remained at this college until his death in 1943. Wertheimer’s most impactful publication
“Productive Thinking” was published 2 years after his death in 1945. His work is herald as “an
innovative approach to reasoning and problem solving utilizing the basic principles of Gestalt.”
(Stagner, 1988)
Description of Theory:
Gestalt Theory is a study of human motion perception asserting that “the brain is holistic,
parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies” (Gestalt) Gestalt is a German word
meaning “A physical, biological, psychological, or symbolic configuration or pattern of elements
so unified as a whole that its properties cannot be derived from a simple summation of its parts.“
(Gestalt) In short “the whole is different than the sum of its parts”. (Stagner, 1988)
In 1910, Wertheimer the founder of Gestalt Theory was conducting a study of “Apparent
Movement” where he experimented with a stroboscope, a device that presents various visual
stimuli in time intervals. He presented two images, a vertical line and a horizontal line of equal
length at .02 second alternating intervals. His observers saw the vertical line collapsed onto the
horizontal line. (Stagner, 1988 pg. 245) He continued these experiments with the Schumann
tachistoscope which allowed him to measure down to milliseconds where he found at intervals of
60 ms plus or minus 25 the lines were seen as constant. (Sarris, 1989) This apparent movement
was titled by him as “Phi Phenomena”, because “there was no point to point correspondence of
stimulus to sensation, as the line did not physically move.” In fact, even seasoned observers
could not discriminate between the real and apparent motion. (Sarris, 1989)
Phi phenomenon is “an optical illusion of our brain that allows us to perceive constant
movement instead of a sequence of images”, succinctly, ”we are inventing information that does
not exist”. (Phi phenomenon) We fill in the blanks in order to bring closure and completeness to
the perceived grouping of stimuli. This theory was considered rebellious to the accepted
“associative” practice of “single stimulus – single response.” (Stagner, 1988, page 244)
The results of this research prompted him in 1912 to publish his “first data and
interpretations insisting the experience depended on the gestalt, the configuration rather than on
elemental stimuli. “ “The phenomena which Wertheimer was investigating could not be
explained by the then-prevailing psychology. Psychology was, in 1910, characteristically
analytical: in naive imitation of the natural sciences, it attempted to reduce every complex
phenomenon to simpler ones, the elements which were supposed to make up the whole.”
(Brittanica Concise Encyclopedia: Max Wertheimer) In defense of the Gestalt theory Koffka is
on record as saying “It is a mistake, Koffka held, to deal with any stimulus without regard to the
field in which it is embedded.” (Stagner 1988 pg. 251, para. 2)
A previous professor of Wertheimers and predeccesor to the Gestalt Theory was
Christian von Ehrenfels (1859-1932) an Australian philosopher who raised the question, “What
is Melody?”. In his research he observed that if a melody is played in one key, then the octave is
changed, the listener would still recognize the tune.
He called this “Gestalt Quality”, “it meant
the pattern of organization could be consciously perceived even if all the elements were changed;
(Stagner, 1988)
There are five significant Gestalt Principles that help simplify the theory of visual
perception; 1) Similarity, 2) Continuation, 3) Closure, 4) Proximity and 5) Figure and Ground.
(The model is shown in Figures 1 through 5). Similarity focuses on what an item looks like
relative to the other objects in the vicinity (The Gestalt Principles). Whereas, with Continuation
the eye will follow the leading in the direction guided by the parts, for example a person pointing
and you look in the direction of pointing hand) (exhibit 2). In closure, the mind will place
missing parts into a grouping in order to complete the perceived picture (exhibit 3). Proximity is
concerned with where an item is in locale to the other parts of the gestalt (exhibit 4), and finally
Alignment seeks to create order (exhibit 5). It is the human condition to complete a picture by
considering all relevant stimuli in the scope of what is being viewed, thus the collective whole or
gestalt. (The Gestalt Principles)
Gestalt Theory influences a variety of disciplines ranging from, psychological therapy to
education, art, business systems, media, design and anything that seeks to understand, influence
or understand human motivation and decision making. Our individual perceptions will vary
based on the experiences we have encountered with parts of a whole, and when combined with
the “Here and Now”. Gestalt Therapy (1992) para (1), (3),
Report Prepared by: Gary M. Ross
Works Cited
Boeree, D. C. (n.d.). Gestalt Psychology. Retrieved 9 22, 2011, from
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/gestalt.html
Brittanica Concise Encyclopedia: Max Wertheimer. (n.d.). Retrieved 9 22, 2011, from Answers.com:
http://www.answers.com/topic/max-wertheimer
Dictionary, A. H. (n.d.). Gestalt American Heitage Dictionary. Retrieved 9 22, 2011, from Answers.com:
http://www.answers.com/topic/gestalt
Gestalt. (n.d.). Retrieved 9, 17, 2011, from Google Dictionary:
http://www.google.com/#hl=en&q=gestalt&tbs=dfn:1&tbo=u&sa=X&ei=aWZ7TtyjGqKQsAKqza3JAw&sq
i=2&ved=0CC8QkQ4&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.&fp=44042e544f956246&biw=1280&bih=874
Perls, F. S. (1988). Gestalt Therapy Verbatim. Highland, NY: The Center for Gestalt Development, Inc.
Phi phenomenon. (n.d.). Retrieved 9 20, 2011, from The Free Dictionary by Farlex:
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/persistence+of+vision
Sarris, V. (1989). Psychological Research. Max Wertheimer on seen motion: Theory and evidence ,
volume 51, number 2, pages 58-68.
Saw, J. T. (2000). Gestalt. Retrieved September 14, 2011, from 2D Design Notes Art 104: Design and
Composition: http://daphne.palomar.edu/design/gestalt.html
Stagner, R. (1988). A History of Psychological Theories. In R. Stagner, A History of Psychological Theories
(pp. 245,250). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
The Gestalt Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved 9 14, 2011, from The Gestalt Principles:
http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm
Exhibit 1
Similarity
Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one another. People often
perceive them as a group or pattern.
The example above (containing 11 distinct objects) appears as as single
unit because all of the shapes have similarity.
Unity occurs because the triangular shapes at the bottom of the eagle
symbol look similar to the shapes that form the sunburst.
When similarity occurs, an object can be emphasised if it is dissimilar to
the others. This is called anomally.
The figure on the far right becomes a focal point because it is dissimilar
to the other shapes. (The Gestalt Principles)
Exhibit 2
Continuation
Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move through one
object and continue to another object.
Continuation occurs in the example above, because the viewer's eye will
naturally follow a line or curve. The smooth flowing crossbar of the "H"
leads the eye directly to the maple leaf. (The Gestalt Principles)
Exhibit 3
Closure
Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely
enclosed. If enough of the shape is indicated, people percieve the whole
by filling in the missing infomation.
Although the panda above is not complete, enough is present for the eye
to complete the shape. When the viewer's perception completes a shape,
closure occurs.
Examples
(The Gestalt Principles)
Exhibit 4
Proximity
Proximity occurs when elements are placed close together. They tend to
be perceived as a group.
The nine squares above are placed without proximity. They are
perceived as separate shapes.
When the squares are given close proximity, unity occurs. While they
continue to be separate shapes, they are now perceived as one group.
(The Gestalt Principles)
The fifteen figures above form a unified whole (the shape of a tree)
because of their proximity. (The Gestalt Principles)
Exhibit 5
Figure and GroundThe eye differentiates an object form its
surrounding area. a form, silhouette, or shape is naturrally perceived as
figure (object), while the surrounding area is perceived as ground
(background).
In this image, the figure and ground relationships change as the eye
perceives the the form of a shade or the silhouette of a face.
This image uses complex figure/ground relationships which change
(The Gestalt Principles)