NR STUDY-NOTE NUMBER 19
Many natural resources projects fail because of problems that arise between people.
Technical, social, economic, and institutional expertise may be adequate, but if the people who apply these skills do not work well in teams and closely with others, then success will be elusive. This series of study-notes highlights key aspects of achieving success through working with people.
The study-notes explain the importance of working closely and effectively with people.
They are aimed at the managers of natural resource projects; particularly those concerned with trees and forests.
Examples (in Italics) of personnel management are illustrated by reference to a hypothetical Tree Seed Project that supplies seed to afforestation schemes in
Sylvania. A description of the project is given at the end of this study-note.
Management is the creation and maintenance of conditions where people can work together and perform effectively towards attaining the goals of an enterprise.
Put simply, it is getting things done economically and efficiently with and through people .
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Managers are, therefore, people who get work done by working with and through other people. In the past, managers achieved results through their own staff. Now the most effective and efficient managers work in a more open and participatory manner, both with their own staff and with a wide range of other people.
In the Tree Seed Project, the project manager, the field officer, the laboratory technician, and the rangers, guards and foremen are all managers.
These notes are not concerned with the technical aspects of forestry, which textbooks often consider under the heading of 'forest management'. Neither do they deal with administration or accounting, subjects also often included under the ‘management’ heading.
The Seed Project case study does not cover techniques of seed collection, etc. but concentrates on how personnel use management skills to attain the objectives of the project.
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NR STUDY-NOTE NUMBER 19
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Anyone who manages natural resources projects! However, the concepts apply to everyone who works with people and wants to be more effective in their professional relationships. The ideas should, of course, be passed on to colleagues and collaborators.
Natural resource managers and foresters often receive little training in human resource management. Yet it plays an essential role in the effective deployment and use of total resources to attain project objectives. Experience shows that where projects underperform it is often linked to the inadequate inter-personal skills of managers.
Like forestry, silviculture or seed technology , management is a science that can be taught – and tested through research. A lot is common sense. Much can be learnt through trial and error. But this is not an efficient way of gaining knowledge, and many mistakes can be avoided by learning the principles of effective team working.
Science gathers knowledge and tries to establish causal relationships between the facts.
A hypothesis, which appears to explain the causal relationships, is suggested and tested by experiment. If the hypothesis is found to be true, principles are drawn up and used to predict future events. A number of related principles make up a theory. For example, the theory of silviculture or seed storage .
Biological principles are usually descriptive (or causative), and enable results of action to be accurately predicted. An example is the relationship between temperature and the viability of stored seed. Harrington's Rule (principle) states that for every doubling of temperature, seed viability is halved. Principles can also be prescriptive (or normative).
In these cases they only indicate if a course of action will produce better or worse results . For example, re-stating Harrington’s rule as, “Reduction of temperature improves seed viability”. Principles of management are often of this prescriptive type.
When dealing with principles, it is important to have a clear idea of the concepts .
In the biological example of seed storage, there is usually no confusion over the concept and measurement of temperature. But there is often confusion over the concept and measurement of viability. A viable seed is certainly one that is healthy and germinates vigorously. But can a seed that is diseased and too weak to germinate, although still alive, also be described as viable?
Concepts of management, such as delegation, responsibility, and organisation are - like viability - less easy to define. But definitions are needed to allow the development of a universally understood theory of management.
The Frenchman, Fayol laid the foundations of a scientific approach to management in l916. He defined six aspects of industrial activity - technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and managerial. He also pointed out that as a person became more senior, managerial ability became more important and technical skills less important. Fayol considered that management could be taught and he thus drew up a set of prescriptive principles that still remain relevant.
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NR STUDY-NOTE NUMBER 19
Modern management, as defined by the Americans Koontz and O'Donnel, is a system.
A system is a group of objects or functions, united by inter-dependence or interaction.
Systems are often “closed loops” where the results of actions are used to check and correct future actions.
An example of a biological closed-loop system is phototropism in seedlings. Cells and sensors work together to ensure growth towards a light source. Deviations are corrected as they occur and the seedling is kept on course.
Management systems are concerned with more abstract ideas or functions, but the ideas remain the same. The closed loop is important to keep the enterprise on course to attain its objectives.
Managers must create and maintain an environment in which people can best work together to attain set objectives. Managers (according to Koontz, O'Donnel and Fayol) achieve this by carrying out the functions of planning, organising, staffing, directing, and controlling. Other management scientists prefer slightly different headings - but the theories are similar. The five management functions are described briefly in paragraphs 14 to 18.
Planning is the selection of objectives and policies, and the setting out of the procedures by which an enterprise hopes to achieve these objectives. In other words, it is deciding in advance what work is to be done (and why, how, when, where, with whom, and with what) .
Planning must precede the other functions.
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Organising is the design and development of a structure to carry out the activities and thus achieve the objectives of an enterprise.
Activities and roles are defined and co-ordinated, and authority is delegated. In summary, it is developing a structure of roles by which people can put plans into action.
Organising
is the process by which people required for each role are decided, recruited and placed; training is given; and arrangements are made for people to develop effectively in their roles. Simply, it is placing and keeping the right people, in the right role, at the right time . A manager (eg as facilitator) may often have to work with people whose roles have been decided by others.
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is the guidance and supervision of juniors or colleagues. It is achieved by clarifying roles, responsibilities and assignments; by helping juniors or colleagues to improve their performance, and by motivating them to work with zeal and confidence. In short, it is helping people fulfil their roles effectively and efficiently .
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is needed to see that plans are carried out and achieve the expected impacts. Control is exercised by monitoring and evaluating selected indicators of success, and adjusting plans and activities accordingly. The aim of control is improvement , achieved by
Controlling
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NR STUDY-NOTE NUMBER 19 correcting deviations in order to ensure that desired impacts are achieved and that undesirable impacts are avoided. Simply, it is ensuring that plans, progress and necessary changes are made .
People have different ideas of how they should carry out their responsibilities and achieve their objectives. It is necessary to continuously co-ordinate efforts so that people work harmoniously as a team. These days it is almost always necessary to work co-operatively with many people who are not staff members too.
Clearly management, as represented by the activities outlined in paragraphs 14 to 18, should be practised by everybody in an enterprise. This holds true whether the organisation is a Forestry Department, a Village Management Committee, or a Project
Team. Management, communication and inter-personal skills tend to become more important with seniority. In study-notes numbers 20, 22, 24, 26 and 28, the functions of management will be considered in detail.
Each study-note will be illustrated using examples related to staff of the Seed Project.
The examples will show how personnel management can affect the efficient execution of seed handling activities .
Despite the fact that the management functions are dealt with separately, it is important to appreciate that the five functions described are closely interrelated. No one function can be practised in isolation. And different aspects of a function may be used in different situations (e.g. directing / coaching / facilitating).
The use of natural resources involves working with people from outside as well as inside the enterprise. This is particularly true if they benefit from the resource. The modern manager must work with a wide range of groups with an interest in the outputs of the enterprise. Examples of such interests include village communities, loggers, environmental NGOs, government agencies, and, especially, the general public. The manager will need to interact with these organisations in different roles. He or she may be a moderator, facilitator, negotiator, advisor, supplicant, or often simply (and importantly) an observer. Performing effectively in these roles depends on understanding and using the personnel management skills described here.
In reading and applying these notes, keep in mind that ‘management’, ‘enterprise’ and
‘staff’ cover a wide range of situations in which you might find yourself. (Examples are listed in the table below.) The principles will generally be applicable. The study-notes will draw out these commonalties.
Look at the table overleaf, and decide what ‘managing’ role you are playing.
For example:
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Is it a permanent senior role, with juniors working under you.
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Is it a temporary leadership role amongst a team of equals.
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Or is it as a facilitator, encouraging others to do it themselves?
Perhaps you play different roles at different times?
Remember that ‘planning’, ‘organising’, ‘staffing’, ‘directing’ and ‘controlling’ will have different meanings in these situations. The study-notes outlining these functions will introduce the wider dimensions in the context of what a manager of projects or enterprises should already be doing. Details of the newer, more participatory approaches to working with people are provided in further study-notes.
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NR STUDY-NOTE NUMBER 19
MANAGER
Advisor
Arbitrator
Chairperson
Chief
Executive
Facilitator
Farmer
Head
Leader
Minister
Moderator
Negotiator
Secretary
Spokesperson
Teacher
ENTERPRISE
Business
Community
Committee
Company
Conference
Council
Department
Farm
Ministry
Mission
Office
Project
Team
Training Course
Working Group
STAFF
Assistants
Civil Servants
Colleagues
Delegates
Employees
Family members
Members
Participants
General Public
Stakeholders
Villagers
Workers
THE SYLVANIAN SEED PROJECT.
The purpose of this imaginary project is to improve seed supplies to afforestation efforts in Sylvania. The project is used as an example throughout this series of management study-notes to illustrate how the principles of personnel management can be applied.
The project has two expatriate advisory staff, each with a Sylvanian counterpart. The seed centre is staffed by a seed technician, seed storeman, and a team of six seed collectors who collect seeds and train regional and community teams. The seed centre has basic equipment and two vehicles. Some seed is exported overseas.
External funds are provided by a donor (North Development Agency) over a period of five years, after which the Seed Centre will be self-sufficient, and receive operational funds from the Ministry. The project is located in the Ministry of Forests, which acts as its host.
The main outputs for which the project is responsible are:
1. seed centre established in the Capital of Sylvania,
2. collection centres established in the four regions,
3. ten village community seed collection teams established and operational in each region, and
4. extension service to farmers set up to encourage local seed collection and afforestation.
This study-note is based on material originally prepared for a training course of the Natural Resources
Institute, University of Greenwich. For information about other titles, please contact marcus.robbins@virgin.net
Revised March 2003
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NR STUDY-NOTE NUMBER 19
T HE S PECTRUM OF M ANAGEMENT .
Appraising
Arranging
Analysing
Calculating
Data gathering
Designing
Estimating
Measuring
Researching
Scheming
Advocating
Coaching
Empowering
Encouraging
Facilitating
Guiding
Influencing
Leading
Lobbying
Mentoring
Moderating
Negotiating
Steering
Appraising
Assessing
Auditing
Checking
Evaluating
Invigilating
Monitoring
Observing
Overseeing
Policing
Recording
Reporting
Reviewing
Supervising
Watching
Arranging
Establishing
Framework
Relating
Setting TORs
Structuring
Targeting
Assigning
roles
Defining responsibilities
Delegating
Posting
Role playing
Tasking
Teaming up
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NR STUDY-NOTE NUMBER 19
M ANAGEMENT D IAMOND .
The diagram shows how the functions of management could relate to our different faculties and personality types.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
The NR study-notes numbers 19, 20, 22, 24, 26 ,28 are based on notes prepared by J. F. Hughes, who lectured at Oxford University. The notes were originally re-written by A. M. J. Robbins, at the suggestion of
Mr Hughes, to form a manual for staff working with the Nepal/EEC/ODA National Tree Seed Project. They have been subsequently re-edited for wider usage to form the current study-notes. The notes follow Harvard
Business School precepts, which continue to be relevant! We are grateful to Mr Hughes for his material and suggestions. We hope these study-notes will stimulate better personnel management in natural resource projects.
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