Importance of Education for Appreciation of Differences1
If the law guarantees equality to every citizen regardless of his/her nationality,
language, religion and other individual and group differences, than all citizens should
be taught not only to respect and appreciate their own cultural norms and values but
also to appreciate and respect their fellow citizens who are, in that respect, different.
We study our own culture, intentionally or not, since our very birth. Depending
on the expectations of our environment and the norms of behavior we gradually
adopt, many aspects of our cultural identity are shaped in early childhood. Later on,
through formal education, we continue to systematically learn and adopt the norms
and values characteristic for our own culture.
In multicultural societies, and such are most modern societies, this process of
shaping one’s personality and identity could be quite complex. For example, in
families where parents originate from different cultures (there are many in our
country), children could learn simultaneously two languages and become familiar and
celebrate various religious holidays. There are many examples of our immigrant
families living all over the world whose children learn the foreign language and get to
know the other culture as well as their own.
However, under different circumstances, when we are not directly exposed to
other culture, we learn about it differently. Namely, it is natural that to everything that
is new and unusual, different from what we are familiar with, we react with
apprehension, even fear. There’s no place like home, where we feel most secure.
When in new, unknown town, we move with more caution than in the city we grew up.
At the same time, we try to orient ourselves in relation to most marked, most obvious
and visible points (towers, sculptures), to “blaze the trail” using the “mental map” of
our own town, even to judge the behavior of people in that town comparing it to
behavior of our fellow townsmen. This can often cause misconceptions. Only
through actual contact with these strangers we could get to know and understand
them better, and by doing so notice similarities and not only the differences and
disparities among us.
When two different cultures meet, regardless of whether between individuals,
groups or institution, four differing reactions are possible (Berry, 1990):
-
Assimilation: adopting, acquiring and practicing the values and typical cultural
behaviors of another group while suppressing own/minority cultural
background.
-
Marginalization: loosing links with own culture with unsuccessful creation of ties
with the dominant culture
-
Separation: maintenance and promotion of own cultural heritage and refusal to
make connections with other/dominant culture
1
Inserts from the Manual Living Together: A Handbook for Intercultural Youth Trainings
Developed by Jelena Vranješević, Zorica Trikić. Ružica Rosandić, Pestalozzi Children’s Foundation
PCF, 2005
-
Integration: maintenance of own cultural heritage with active participation in
dominant culture
In relation to how one society develops democratic values, tolerance and
appreciation for differences, we could distinguish two models:
-
-
Societies that “introduce” the tolerance: proclaiming tolerance declaratively
and formally, introducing school curriculum that promotes tolerance, including
cultural differences in educational context, defining the time, place and manner
to “work on tolerance” , prescribing the consequences and punishment for
intolerant behavior
Societies that “develop and cherish” tolerance as a capacity for concrete
actions: proclaiming tolerance as one of the highest valued principles in the
society, developing various means and levels of educating for tolerance;
structurally changing educational process in accordance with that; developing
social conditions and circumstances for growth of tolerance; changing the
entire social context to adjust it to the goal of developing a tolerant society.
In order for one society to introduce, develop, and cherish tolerance as one of
its main values, it is necessary to act on the level of a system, norms and legal
procedures, but also on the individual level, through teaching cultural sensitivity. This
manual is envisioned as a tool for achieving such a goal.
“Education must develop the ability to communicate, share and cooperate with
others. The citizens of the pluralistic society must be able to accept that their
interpretation of situations and problems is rooted in their individual lives, the history
of their society and their cultural traditions, therefore, that no one individual or a
group could possibly have a single solution to all the problems, and that are many
solutions to every problem. That is why people must understand each other, respect
one another, and negotiate as equals, aspiring to find a common field.
Education must cultivate the ability for people to make informed choices, basing
their judgments and actions not only in analysis of present situation but also based
on a vision of the desired future2.”
I
2
UNESCO Final Report: International Conference on Education, Geneva: UNESCO, 1994.
2
Understanding Cultural and Individual Differences
CULTURE
The Meaning of “Culture”
When we hear the term “culture”, our first associations are usually the theater,
book, concert, or other various forms of elite culture. Culture, however, has a much
wider meaning. Every human community develops its culture that could be defined
by:
-
the way its members perceive what is good and what is bad
how family roles and relationships are organized, and
the roles and relationships between men and women
how they perceive time
what traditions they consider important
what language they use
what rules they follow when preparing food and drinks
how they exchange information
how they distribute social power and who holds it
how they react to other cultures
what is the role of religion in their social life
We could think about culture as some type of software: like a computer
program, some basic assumptions about the world we live in, values and norms we
conform to, the language we speak, the way we dress and eat, the way we
communicate and relate to individuals of opposite sex… that entire “program”
determines our everyday behavior.
Or, we could compare the culture to an iceberg3. Just like the iceberg where
we can see the top, yet only assume that there is more to it, some attributes of the
culture are easily recognizable while the others are difficult to distinguish.
Only a tiny part of the iceberg is above the surface of the water, propped by a
much greater section below the surface. Though invisible, that hidden part is a
powerful foundation of every culture. Up there, above the surface, it is easy to
recognize the visible characteristics of every culture in its architecture, music,
clothing styles, food preparation, etc. Far below the surface are its innermost
attributes, like the history (memories) of people who build and share that particular
culture, behavioral norms, values they abide by and assumptions about the world,
nature and time that are not visible at first sight.
Comparison of culture with an iceberg is useful not only to understand that the
parts above the surface reflect those below it, but also that these fundamental
cultural elements due to its “lower visibility” make it difficult to easily view and
comprehend cultural differences in general. It is relatively easy to recognize the
3
Source: AFS Orientation Handbook Vol. 4, New York: AFS Intercultural Programs Inc., 1984, p. 14.
3
obvious differences between our own culture and some other, but it is much more
difficult to understand what the foundation of those differences is.
However, this picture of culture as an iceberg is not very useful when we
search for answers to some other crucial questions. For example, does culture
change? If it does, why and how these changes occur? How strong is the bond
between the behavior of an individual and his/her own culture? Can a person live in
harmony with several different cultural models at the same time? Do and how various
cultures intertwine and affect each other?
However, this picture could assist in understanding some of these hidden, less
visible elements of culture. This is particularly important for young people who
frequently and with ease share some common forms of cultural expression like
music, dressing styles, types of entertainment, even language. This allows for easy
recognition, but these transparent similarities could obscure profound differences that
we should also be aware of so not to leave them out.
Three Levels of Culture
In order to better understand any culture we could be aided by differentiating
several levels of expressing cultural distinctiveness. Some authors (for example, N.
Hidalgo4) emphasize the importance of differentiating between the actual elements of
a certain culture and the behaviors of its members and the symbols characteristic for
a certain culture. The fact that different levels are being discussed – from concrete to
abstract – emphasizes the difficulty in identifying, reckoning and understanding of
these various levels of expressing cultural characteristics. According to Hidalgo:
-
-
Concrete level of expressing cultural characteristics pertains to all easily
visible elements of one culture like clothing, music, food, games, etc.
Behavioral level is recognized through societal roles existing in one culture,
its language and nonverbal communication, manner of communicating and
behaving toward the members of another culture, or toward the members
of the same culture but of opposite sex, different social status, etc.
Behavioral level reflects everything contained in that deeper symbolic level
characteristic for a particular culture
Symbolic level involves all the values and beliefs characteristic for specific
culture. These deeper cultural components are reflected in its members’
behaviors: how they play various societal roles, what and how they express
verbally, etc.
Deeper Cultural Characteristics
Up to this point we mostly discussed cultural differences. However, in order to
better understand various cultures we should discuss the similarities that exist among
various cultures. Though tremendously different, all human cultures are characterized
by some similarities, common denominators, possible to identify in each and every
one of them. Some cultural researchers (Geert Hofstede, for example) concur that
the main attributes of all human cultures could be analyzed through 5 basic
Hidalgo, N. 1993. Multicultural teacher introspection. U: Parrz, T. And Fraser, I. (Eds.) Freedom’s Plow: Teaching in The
Multicultural Classroom. New York: Routledge.
4
4
dimensions, each representing a continuum allowing us to position and compare
various cultures.
First dimension for comparing various cultures is distribution of social power
(power distance) accepted in a specific culture. That means that cultures could be
compared on the criteria of the extent to which the misbalance of social power
between individuals and social institutions is accepted and tolerated in certain
culture. In other words, they could be compared according to the type of social
hierarchy certain culture considers acceptable or desirable: those where one person
could have enormous amount of social power (the top of the pyramid) that
distinguishes it from the rest of individual members in the society, or those where
social power is more balanced and equally distributed, making the pyramid of social
power less “sharp”. While comparing cultures on this criterion, we must pay attention
to how important societal decisions are made (democratically or authoritatively), who
is allowed to participate in making these decisions, etc.
The second dimension for comparison of various cultures and their deeper
characteristics is the tolerance of uncertainty characteristic for a given society.
Societies differ in the level of their readiness to tolerate uncertain situations, their
readiness to expose themselves to risk, handle the feelings of being threatened and
the rules they use to assure safety of its members. These rules determine actions
and behaviors of the society as whole, but also of its every individual member, and
they determine the extent of improvisation in expressing certain cultural
characteristics that is allowed, which in return determines that society’s openness
toward social changes.
The dimension with “individualism” on one end and “collectivism” on the
other end of the continuum defines the extent to which the interests of the society as
a whole are considered superior over the interests of individual members of that
society, and how the differences among the individuals within that same cultural
group are perceived compared to perception of differences between the whole group
and other cultural groups. Therefore, this criterion determines to which extent we is
more important than I, as well as the differences between us and them (others).
The forth dimension that helps us compare different cultures is so called
“male-female” principle. Societies and cultures differ in what social roles they
consider appropriate for its male members and what for females. For example,
different cultures could be compared about how “natural” it is that women’s place
should be exclusively in home, what professions are considered “male” or “female”,
etc. These differences indicate how social power is distributed among members of
different sex.
Finally, cultures could be compared according to historical, or time
orientation. Namely, what it compares is how much a certain society tends to base
its decisions on traditions and past events, and to which extent it does so having
some clear vision of their future on mind. Is the past predominant context when
making important decisions, or is it some preferred future state. For example, in
some Native North American communities, all decision-making relevant for the entire
5
community requires a thorough consideration and analysis of all possible
consequences of such decision, considering five future generations of their children.
Another extreme would be represented by societies where the most important
consideration for crucial societal decisions is what their ancestors would do – fathers,
grandfathers, great-grand fathers.
Classification of cultures on a continuum according to the above listed
dimensions does not mean rating them as “better” or “worse”. They are, simply, being
classified according to some common denominators.
There are some other, additional dimensions that could be used to compare
various cultures and their deeper characteristics.
For example, some authors believe that cultures could be compared according
to speed they transmit information within/among the members of the group, or how
long it takes before certain important decisions are well known and understood. The
speed of understanding important messages depend on how explicit they should be
in order to be understood, or, how easy they could be understood or not without
detailed knowledge of the context they pertain to. For example, the communication
within one family lasts for years, and the members of that family understand pretty
well what is being transmitted even though the situation the specific message
pertains to, or the way it is being transmitted is not clearly defined. Meaning, many
things are simply assumed rather than indicated explicitly, thus, the messages is well
understood and clear to all, because many preconditions necessary for accurate
interpreting of the message already exist. As a result, the communication is
successful, the message is interpreted accurately, without clear and detailed
clarification of message’s context. It is similar with communication in one society.
Knowing the wider context allows the members of the society to clearly understand
what is being “talked about” even before the whole message is transmitted, while it is
only insinuated. But, the problems occur when such messages are sent to those who
are not familiar with the context, because they do not have enough information, and
that in return makes accurate understanding of the message more difficult. From this
aspect of emphasizing communicational characteristics, highly contextualized
cultures are the ones where ties among their members are strong and intimate. As an
example, Japanese, Arabic and Mediterranean cultures are listed as those where
individual members are strongly interconnected. The cultures considered to be less
contextualizesed are North American, Swiss, German and Scandinavian cultures
where connection among individuals is less intense, where exists a stronger need to
know the context of message, requiring that the messages of social importance must
be more explicit.
The cultures could be compared according to the level of the acceptable,
desired, appropriate level of “personal space” of each individual, where others,
especially strangers, are not welcomed. That characteristic is clearly visible in how
close certain members of the society could approach important persons in that
society. For example, how many steps one has to go over to get close to the King.
Or, how far away (physically) is the teacher standing from his/her students? Is the
speaker’s place higher, and the teacher stands behind it looking down on his
audience, or is he/she moving around the classroom being on the same level with
6
his/her students? We will talk about this occurrence when we discuss the term of
“ethnic distance”.
This list of criteria for comparison does not exhaust all possible dimensions to
compare various cultures and their deeper, most essential elements. For example,
for each culture it is also very important how it determines territoriality, or how it
perceives time – mono-chronic or poly-chronic.
Notwithstanding, there are many other important questions that this analysis
could not offer satisfactory answers to. For example, to better understand the culture
it is extremely important to know:
-
-
What is the relation between culture’s stability and the processes of cultural
change?
How cultures intertwine and affect each other?
Should the emphasis be placed on commonalities between all humans
(universal aspects of all human beings) or on individuality and uniqueness
of each individual whose cultural background is only one of many
characteristics and determinants
How far we should go in tolerating various cultural differences?
Some of these questions will be discussed in further sections. Some, however,
you will find answers to yourselves.
IDENTITY
Personal Identity
Identity is defined in the answer to the question “Who am I?”. The answer to
that question depends on many factors. On one hand, it is greatly contingent
upon person’s individual characteristics, while on the other it depends on overall
social and historical context in which the individual exists and develops. Just as
with culture, we could discuss various aspects of identity, some of which are
visible and others less visible. That is why it is often said that identity is multilayered. While we used the comparison with the iceberg to better understand the
characteristics of a culture, here we will use the comparison with an onion to
better understand the issue: some layers are closer to the core of identity, and
some closer to the surface. All aspects that represent the identity of a person
pertain to:
-
Roles we have in life (son/daughter, mother/father, student, lawyer,
professor, friend, political party member, rock music lover, etc.)
Place of birth and place of residence (state, region, city, municipality or
section of the town, etc.)
racial, national and religious belonging
sex and sexual orientation
7
-
Physical characteristics (hair and eye color, height, weight, etc.)
belonging to a minority or majority group
What we don’t want to be identified with (for example, we define ourselves
by not wanting to belong to a certain political party, we are not a
man/woman alcoholic, immoral person, etc.)
Our identity is equally influenced by those aspects that are not the matter of
personal choice (racial, national belonging, place of birth, roles of daughter/son,
physical characteristics), as well as those aspects we actually choose ourselves
(wife, business, man, party member, rock music lover, etc.). A person who defines
his/her identity only through aspects that are not the matter of personal choice
thinks that everything is predetermined and that there is no freedom of choice,
thus, it reduces the possibility to truly feel good in its own skin. If we add to that
the negative value attributed to certain aspects of that person’s identity from the
society itself, then the chances of that person respecting and positively valuing
him/herself are minimal. On another hand, a person who defines him/herself
through many different roles many of which represent his/her personal choice,
perceive him/herself as autonomous individual who has the possibility to choose,
and because of that feels good about him/herself.
It is also important to emphasize the danger of viewing oneself and others
only through one aspect (onion layer) of identity (only through racial or territorial
belonging, or the role of a parent etc.) because that represents a good breeding
ground to develop stereotypical ways of thinking and creation of prejudices. If we
perceive ourselves and others through one aspect of our identities only, we will
eliminate the possibility to be different and more open-minded as would be the
case if we defined ourselves in various ways rather than by belonging to one
group only. Since the way we perceive ourselves greatly depends on how others
perceive us and how we perceive their perception of us, (“What persons/groups
that are important to me think about me and how do they perceive me?”), one of
the ways of oppression and aggression is the attempt to define a person only
through one role or one group it belongs to, neglecting or minimizing many other
aspects that might define that person, too.
The way we define ourselves is also determined by our perception of the social,
historical and cultural context within which we are developing and are existing
(“Which aspects of my group’s tradition, history and culture are also parts of me
and why is it so?”). Since all people are somewhat similar in to all other people, to
some other people, and to none other person (Olport, 1969), the following
question arises- which parts of person’s identity are idiosyncratic (specific and
characteristic to that person only), common for the members of his/her group
(characteristic to the group a person belongs to) and universal (common to all
people). Perception of personal identity represents person’s attempt to combine
and fuse all aspects of own identity (idiosyncratic, group and universal) into one
unique, holistic combination that would give him/her the feeling of uniqueness,
specialty, and individuality in spite of perceived similarities/differences compared
to other people.
8
Group Identity
When we say that the social, historical and cultural context represents the base
for development of personal identity, or that a personal identity develops and is
defined through relationships with others (individuals or groups), then we have to
remain aware of difficulties related to differentiation between the personal and
group identity. Group identity, or feelings of belonging to a certain group with
which we share the same attitudes, behaviors and values, is very important
because it provides the person with feelings of belonging, security and protection,
as well as the possibility to value self and own group compared to other groups
and their members. Group identity helps person to feel powerful and pleased to
be the member of the group (especially in situations when the group is dominant
or a majority group).
In situations when we are members of the majority group, our group identity is
not the most important thing to us, and then we define ourselves in various other
ways, through many other roles, characteristics and goals. For example, while
among “brethren”, the members of the majority nation in one state rarely feel the
need to define themselves through their national belonging. However, if they
interact with a minority group member, their readiness to define themselves
through their primary group increases (for example, when they reside in their own
country, people usually do not define themselves primarily through their
citizenship, but when they are abroad, their national identity becomes one of the
crucial elements of their identity).
The level of oppression and feelings of endangerment in certain groups
influence whether their group members will define themselves through their group
identity or as individuals. Members of minority groups are therefore more likely to
define themselves through the group they belong to, and other groups are more
likely to perceive them through their belonging to a minority group, while the
members of the majority group are more likely to perceive themselves as
autonomous and unique individuals independent from ties to any group.
Development of Minority and Majority Group Identity
Processes through which the group/cultural/ racial, identity is created represents
an important aspect in order to fully understand the attitudes, behaviors and value
systems characteristic for various groups, as well as understanding the problem
of discrimination. The process of identity development among a minority and
majority groups according to some authors is characterized by five stages:
First stage – the stage of conformism
Minority group – Members of the minority group at this stage highly value all
characteristics of the majority group (culture, values, look, behaviors, etc.), and
attempt to assimilate and become members of the majority group. They tend to
deny affiliations with its own minority group which is at this stage valued
negatively, and perceive other minority groups identically to the way majority
group perceives them.
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Majority group – At this stage, ethnocentrism is dominant, knowledge about other
groups is limited, and that is why development of various social stereotypes is
highly likely. Members of the majority group principally (more or less consciously)
believe in the dominance and superiority of their own group. This stage is
characterized by misbalance between the belief that there is no discrimination,
that all people truly are equal, and the belief that minority groups, since they
indeed are inferior by nature, are different and “deviant”, do deserve a different
treatment (discrimination). Members of the majority group at the stage of
conformism often reject the notion that belonging to the majority group is
important to them, attempting to avoid responsibility for discrimination and
oppression.
Second stage – the stage of misbalance
Minority group – Members of the minority group begin to realize that
discrimination and oppression against their minority group do indeed exists, and
the confidence and belief in the value system of the majority group unsettle for the
first time. Person becomes aware of the negative characteristics of the majority
group, but also the positive aspects of its own group. Feelings of pride and shame
are intertwined because person belongs to a minority group.
Majority group – Members of the majority group confront the fact that
discrimination does exist, they accept that notion, become aware of discrimination
mechanisms, as well as their own role in it. They experience the feelings of
shame and guilt because of the oppression conducted by the group they belong
to, and because of their passive observation of what is happening without
opposing it due to fear that they would be rejected by their own group. They
rationalize this behavior by believing that a single individual is not capable and
powerful enough to change anything.
Third stage – the stage of resistance and inclusion
Minority group – Dominant feelings among the members of the minority group are
shame, guilt and anger. They become aware that, by rejecting their own minority
group identity, they were actually giving a silent support to oppression, which
creates the feeling of guilt, shame and anger, and, at the same time, they become
angry with dominant majority group that causes that oppression. At this stage, the
values of the dominant group are being rejected, and the attention is given to the
values of own group, its traditions, history and culture.
Majority group – Members of the majority group become aware that oppression
and discrimination do exists, and are present in various segments of social life.
Anger directed at institutions occurs at this stage because these institutions
should guarantee the basic civil and democratic values, and they are failing to do
that. Feelings of shame and guilt intensify because they belong to the group that
is conducting oppressive and discriminatory measures. Possible reactions at this
stage are either patronizing behaviors in attempts to protect the minority groups,
or a complete identification with minority groups as a way to distance oneself from
the primary (majority) group identity. However, the minority groups refuse to
accept such relationship and the role assigned to them, which represents great
10
disappointment for members of the majority group who perceive themselves as
“good-natured saviors”.
Fourth stage – the stage of introspection
Minority group – At this stage, members of the minority group realize that their
feelings of anger are counterproductive and that they present a barrier to
successfully resolving the questions of own identity. Perception of oneself at this
stage begins to be defined positively, in accordance with what own group really is,
rather than negatively as was the case previously. In addition to already existing
feelings of belonging to own group, there occurs a strong awareness about the
need for autonomy..
Majority group – At the beginning this stage, members of the majority group
oscillate between two extremes – accepting the identity of their own majority
group and rejecting that identity. Gradually, they begin to question the values of
their majority group and the need for higher individual autonomy occurs. They
begin accepting what they really are (members of the majority group) and feelings
of guilt and shame start fading out.
Fifth stage – the stage of integrated consciences
Minority group – At this stage, members of the minority group are well aware that
there are positive and negative aspects to both groups, and begin respecting and
adopting the positive aspects from both groups. Conflict between individuality and
belonging to a group gets resolved and the person attains the freedom to
simultaneously feel as a member of a group and a unique individual. At this stage,
members of a minority group are determined to actively face all forms of
oppression.
Majority Group - At this stage, members of the majority group accept their
identity completely, do not negate their belonging to the majority group, and
accept the responsibility for oppression without feeling guilty or ashamed… They
begin to truly appreciate cultural differences and dedicate themselves to
promoting the basic democratic society values.
II Biased Approach to Cultural Differences Or Differences as a
Potential Threat
STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICES
The way we perceive the reality, people, events and occurrences around us is
greatly determined and contingent upon the way our thoughts are organized, our
11
emotional reactions to what we observe, and the expectations we have toward
ourselves and those around us.
Generalized thinking saturated with stereotypes and prejudices is still widespread
because:


It represents the shortest possible way to classify and sort out information
about a particular person, occurrence or situation
It “speeds up” the process of inference, gratifies the need for clarification and
security, and provides the possibility to respond swiftly
Stereotypes are defined as generalizations, schematic and rigid perceptions of traits
and personalities attributed to the members of a certain group, which are transferred
and applied rigidly to every single member of the given group.
Stereotypes are also described as:


Irrational generalizations/etiquettes – the product of incomplete inferences
deducted from limited experiences (that is why they often do contain some
truth), with a function of easing the adjustment to everyday life
Expression and rationalization of prejudices (or characteristic attitudes), since
they represent the essential part of each prejudice
Prejudices are defined as specific types of attitudes characterized by a relatively
permanent, subjective (positive or negative) position toward certain entities (groups,
nationalities, individuals, institutions…) or as judgments that:



Are not based on factual or logical argumentation
Are resilient to change
Are characterized by a strong emotional component
Like every other attitude, the prejudice is characterized by three basic components:



Cognitive (what we think, opinions) – in this sense the stereotypes represent a
cognitive component of every prejudice
Emotional (what we feel, and is related to our thinking)
Connotative (what we do as a result of our thinking and feelings)
The study of prejudices is usually conducted by measuring the social distance – the
readiness to accept or reject various types of contacts with members of certain
groups. Social distance is a very important indicator of whether the prejudices exists
or not, and if they do exist, to which extent they are present. For example, we could
declaratively express acceptance for a certain group and claim that we have nothing
against its members, yet hesitate to socialize and communicate with them. That
would clearly indicate the existence of a certain social distance toward the members
of that group.
Function of Stereotypes and Prejudices
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Prejudices and stereotypes are widespread because they aide us in:




Giving the meaning and understanding to the world around us (in a situation
that is ambiguous or when we do not possess enough information,
stereotypical thinking “fills out the emptiness”, completes insufficient
information and provides the feeling of certainty, predictability and clarity)
Valuing the group we belong to (for example, when we think that certain
groups are “bad”, that means that our group, since it is deferent, is “good”)
Valuing other groups, their characteristics and their way of functioning
(good/bad, dangerous/friendly, unpredictable, hospitable, warm, etc.)
To rationalize discrimination against the members of other groups (for
example, if we attribute negative characteristics to a certain group, if we think
of it as “bad” for whatever reason, we also think that it is justified for such a
group not to have the same rights as our group that is “good”)
Process of Developing Stereotypes and Prejudices
In order to better understand the genesis of stereotypical thinking, it is important to
consider the following:


Awareness about the differences and process of categorization and
generalization that are the very foundation of stereotypical thinking are natural
cognitive processes
Developing a negative attitude/relation toward the ones who are different is not
part of natural cognitive functioning
Children are aware of differences in their environment since an early age. Even
infants recognize the differences between their primary caretakers and other
individuals. Two-year-old children can recognize and accurately describe the
differences in physical appearance between various objects and persons.
According to York (1991), between the ages of tree and five, children comment
most frequently:




Characteristics related to disability and technical aids
Characteristics related to sex
Physical characteristics/ hair color, skin color, weight, height…
Cultural differences: language, accent
As they grow, children increasingly pose the question “Why?” They want to know
why they look the way they do - their skin, hair, eye color – and want to know whether
they will look different as adults. Searching for answers to these questions, children
need adult assistance. Commonly, children adopt the attitudes and values about
themselves and others from their environment, they imitate adults and embrace their
attitudes and values as their own. Adult messages determine the type, quality and
intensity of prejudices children develop.
The formation of stereotypes and prejudices proceeds in three steps:
1) Creation of “discernible” categories. When we meet people, we tend to
notice the most visible characteristics about them and overlook the others.
13
What we notice as the most visible characteristic depends on the context. For
example, if the context relates to learning as the primary activity, we will focus
on what is important for that particular activity (and notice whether someone is
“smart”, for example), while in contexts where we chiefly socialize, we will
notice characteristics related to communicational skills, verbal expression,
friendliness, open-mindedness, etc.
2) Creation of incorrect generalizations about the whole group (stereotypes
and prejudices). Based on these discernible attributes, we develop
conclusions about the person, and generalize these conclusions to all
members of the group. Prejudices and stereotypes procure erroneous
generalizations about individual members of one particular group when we
believe that the group they belong to is homogenous,(they are all…none of
them…they always…)
3) Behaving toward the members of a certain group in accordance with
generalized views (discrimination). What we think about the
individual/group greatly influences our behavior toward them. If we believe that
a certain group is bad, we tend to excuse and rationalize discrimination
against that group, or deny their rights (for example, based on the conviction
that all Roma children are dirty, we think that it is “legitimate/justified” to restrict
their admittance to public pools, while children from other groups are allowed
the entrance without any precautionary inspection of their hygiene).
Indeed, prejudices and stereotypes most often lead to erroneous generalizations
(either positive or negative) about the subjects of our arbitration. When reality does
not correspond with our stereotypes, it is often easier to change our interpretation of
reality, than change what we believe in. That is why we talk about exceptions – for
example “good female driver”, “dainty man”, “Clean Roma child who enjoys learning”.
Stereotypical thinking is not only a personal process, but also a societal phenomenon
– many aspects of our everyday lives are saturated with stereotypical approach to
reality, and we are often unaware of it (for example, belief that there are “male” and
“female” professions, that certain toys are only for boys or only for girls, belief that
certain groups deserve what is happening to them because they are not as
hardworking as others, or are less capable than others, etc.).
What Else Should we Know about Stereotypes and Prejudices?




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Prejudices and stereotypes are thinking patterns that are acquired, and are
explicitly or implicitly transmitted through the institutional system
Research indicates that complete annihilation of prejudicial or stereotypical
thinking is not possible, however, it is possible to develop skills to critically
evaluate and appraise negative information that are in the root of every
prejudice. Observing objectively, which is quite different from interpreting
and evaluating, is the first step forward – for example, instead of saying that
someone is “lazy”, it would be important to determine what exactly that
person does in certain situations, enticing us to label it in such a manner.
While prejudices and stereotypes are typically learned passively, unlearning
them must be done actively.
Every one of us carries his/her own “baggage of stereotypes and prejudices”
Becoming aware of one’s own prejudices and stereotypes represents a
necessary step in overcoming/eliminating them
14
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
Changing is always difficult and incremental
For the beginning, it is enough to abstain from acting in accordance with
prejudices, to create the space for careful and objective observation of
oneself and others.
Effects of Stereotypes and Prejudices
Self-fulfilling Prophecies
The process of creation of self-fulfilling prophecies develops as follows:
1. An individual or entire group is labeled (for example, we label our colleague
as someone who is “lazy”)
2. We begin to behave in accordance with the label that was attributed. Our
behavior could be very explicit in relation to the label (for example, we stop
assigning important tasks to that colleague, we marginalize him/her in
teamwork, etc.) or implicit (attempts to increase that person’s productivity by
constantly emphasizing the need for teamwork in order to increase efficacy,
etc.)
3. That individual/group begins to behave in accordance with the label (person
labeled as “lazy” withdraws increasingly, does not participate in teamwork,
etc.), which only asserts our original label and strengthens our opinion that
all along we were right.
Categorization process, i.e. labeling, is a natural aspect of our cognitive
functioning because it allows us to more efficiently adjust to changes in our
environment, it assures predictability and clarity, and points out possible reactions
and actions toward other individuals and groups. However, it becomes dangerous
when we accept these labels as an absolute truth, or a fact, rather than just a
hypothesis that could be proved or disproved in reality. When facts representing a
starting point in our reasoning (for example, the colleague was late for meeting three
times, did not complete an assignment within agreed time frame) get mixed up with
our interpretation of those facts (colleague is unmotivated and lazy), and we consider
these interpretations to be facts, or an absolute truth, we begin the process of
labeling that will result in self-fulfilling prophecies.
The Mechanism “Blame the Victim” (Ryan, 1976)
This is the mechanism according to which the root of social problems is seen in the
characteristics of groups suffering from these problems, instead of placing the root of
these problems within a system that is oppressive in various ways and that creates
unequal opportunities and possibilities for different groups.
By applying this mechanism, we attempt to solve social problems without changing
the conditions that really create them. The mechanism “blame the victim” unwinds
through the following four steps:
15
1. Problem and the population stricken by it are defined (for example: “Roma
children perform poorly in school, and are highly likely to drop out.”)
2. Value systems, culture and typical behaviors of the population with the problem
and the one without it are compared, usually through stereotyping (for example:
“Roma value freedom, they are unaccustomed to work, they don’t value
education, they are socially deprived…”)
3. Cause for the problem is placed within the differences between the population
with problem and the one without it (“Roma children have the problem because
their parents do not value education”, while neglecting the fact that these parents
are illiterate themselves, don’t see the purpose of educating children with no
chances of getting employed, have no money for clothing and school supplies…)
4. Implementation of actions aimed at changing the “problem” population. For
example - change family relations, exclude their language and culture, change
their traditions, or train them to adopt behaviors typical for groups without the
problem (for example, enroll Roma children is special schools to “make it easier”,
pressure parents to enroll children in school but neglect the fact that children do
not speak the language or have no prerequisite skills to successfully attend
school, are frightened and afraid to be rejected…)
Mechanism “blame the victim” actually serves to reinforce the prejudices and
rationalize discrimination, i.e. unequal treatment of different groups. This mechanism
is often the very essence of many interventions aimed at vulnerable groups, like
actions aimed at changing the characteristics of at risk groups rather than changing
the circumstances causing these groups to be vulnerable and treated unequally.
Competitive Individualism
This view is based on the belief that everyone is responsible for his own success or
failure in life, and that everyone does have equal chances to fail or succeed. This
view ignores the role of race, sex, social class, or any other aspect of person’s social
identity. It also neglects the fact that not everyone is born with an equal footing, and
some individuals are privileged from the very beginning, thus, are more likely to
succeed than others without privileges.
Any type of labeling, stereotypical and prejudicial thinking represents a danger in
communication because it denies person’s right to uniqueness and individuality.
Both, positive and negative stereotypes are dangerous because they eliminate
person’s right to be different and unique and present encumbrance and limitation.
(For example, we always expect more from children who are stereotyped as “smart”
and “responsible”, which adds great pressure and stress to them. Also, labeling
someone exclusively as hardworking, decreases other expectations and possibilities
for that person to develop other aspects of his/her personality.)
It is important to note that this way of thinking follows the “all or nothing” principle
and consequently is associated with familiar terms: all, always, none, ever etc. That
banishes person’s versatility and individuality and makes it difficult for him/her to
realize the complexity and variability of factors that cause every one of us to behave
and act differently in various life situations.
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Strategies in Work with Children and Adolescents Aimed at Dispersing
Prejudices
1. Differentiate the facts (what is heard or seen) from beliefs, i.e. interpretation of
these facts (how one interprets what is heard or seen)
2. Apply categories and labels only as hypothesis to be used to explain
someone’s behavior and that could be changed and revised, and not as
ultimate truth and a fact.
3. Refrain from “final” conclusions and labeling of any behavior or motivation until
such judgment is based on observable facts.
4. Answer children’s questions
 do not avoid the answers
 do not ignore the questions
 do not change the subject
 answer directly
5. Promote positive attitudes toward differences
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Emphasize that differences are something positive and interesting
Balance assertions stating that all people are the same and that they are
different in many aspects
Do not mix the messages “All people should be given equal opportunities
and conditions” and “All people are the same”
Remember all activities that require children to group objects, occurrences,
people and to identify what is “it” that differentiates them (instead of
instructing “Determine which one does not belong”, say “Determine which
one is different”)
Encourage children to use the language of objectively measurable
observations rather than values and interpretations when they describe
differences and similarities
Help children verbalize their thoughts, feelings and needs
6. Face yourself
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Not talking about something that we think, feel, or is happening to us will not
make that “something” disappear!
If you are having fears and worries, you are dealing with something that is
painful for you - find colleagues and friends who you can talk about it.
Do not force children to indiscriminately accept what you teach, listen to
them first, and then express your opinion or your viewpoint
Create opportunities for your students and yourself to express opinions
without valuing or criticizing,– behave consistently with the values you are
conveying.
ETHNOCENTRISM
Ethnocentrism represents an approach to the world that favors one’s own
culture, i.e. everything associated with own culture is considered “right” and
“normal” while all other cultures are ignored. Ethnocentrism purports that,
because we firmly believe our own cultural values, norms and attitudes to be
17
universal, we expect other cultures to adopt them as well. Other cultures’
resistance to accept these values diminishes them even more, and is often
used as an excuse for discrimination and oppression against the members of
these cultures.
The way we view the world around us, the way we infer conclusions and
assess others in ethnocentric perception of the world is oversimplified and
follows the “either – or” principle. Interactions with other cultures are
characterized by stereotypes and prejudices, mostly negative. Differences are
viewed as something threatening and dangerous. Such viewpoint results in
increased isolation and limitation of interactions with those that are different,
which, in turn, reinforces negative stereotypes, since it eliminates the
opportunity to disperse and change them through experiences with other
cultures.
DISCRIMINATION, OPPRESSION - VARIOUS “ISMS”
Discrimination
Discrimination represents the prejudice in action. Framework for
discrimination is negative labeling of various individuals/groups, which is then
used as justification for discrimination, i.e. unequal treatment in the society and
rights violation.
Oppression
When we add to it the power that dominant group holds in society (prejudice
in action + power), then we define oppression, or so called “isms”. The bedrock
of every “ism” is an assumption that there are superior and inferior groups of
people and it is perfectly natural for superior groups to control the power and
monopolize exploitation of community resources. Understanding that something
unconditionally belongs to someone only based on the membership in the
privileged group, provides that group with self-confidence established on false
rather than actual superiority over the other groups.
In order to delineate oppression necessary is:
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
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For certain beliefs to be the fundamental part of public consciousness (for
example: “Roma culture is inferior, they are irresponsible, lazy,
unreliable, and have propensity for violent behaviors…”)
There exists a misbalance of power (material and political resources are
in the hands of dominant culture) and
The relationship toward particular group is embedded into the system (for
example, the school system disvalues knowledge and skills of the
“outsider” group, education in language other than maternal, etc.)
The level of expressing discrimination/oppression could be:

Individual – expressed through individual actions (for example, teacher who
treats unequally Roma and non-Roma children)
18

Institutional – actions ensued by societal, financial and political institutions
and promoted by these institutions (special schools for Roma children, for
example)
As far as intent, we distinguish:


Intentional discrimination/oppression – behaviors that are result of
purposeful and intentional prejudices toward certain groups (for example, all
classmates except Roma children get invited to a birthday party)
Unintentional discrimination/oppression – discriminatory behaviors we are
often unaware of because we act with best intentions, but in spite of our
intentions, our actions discriminate against one group and favor the other (for
example, preschool teachers will often take a car-toy from a girl and give it to
the boy, and vice versa, take a doll from a boy to give it to the girl, because it
is considered in child’s best interest to play with toys traditionally intended “for
boys” or “for girls”)
As far as the means of expression we distinguish:


Explicit discrimination/oppression – transparent expression of
discrimination (for example, it is forbidden for Roma children to swim in public
pools)
Implicit discrimination/oppression – discrimination that is difficult to notice
because it is not visible and obvious (for example, working with children, we
use the language one group is more familiar with, give examples related only
to experiences of a dominant group, literature written from the perspective of
the dominant group, etc.)
The Types of Discrimination/Oppression
1. Racism – unequal treatment of people based on their race
2. Sexism - unequal treatment of people based on their sex
3. Classizm - unequal treatment of people based on social class they belong to
and/or originate from
4. Heterosexism - unequal treatment of people based on their age group
5. Religious discrimination/oppression - unequal treatment of people based
on their religious affiliations
6. Discrimination of individuals with disabilities - unequal treatment of
people based on their physical, cognitive, mental or emotional abilities and
functioning
7. Discrimination/oppression related to person’s age - unequal treatment of
people based on their age. This discrimination can affect the population of
young individuals (they are not competent enough for certain jobs, they cannot
obtain visas for travel) as well as the older population (they are automatically
rejected for certain types of jobs; they cannot get credit line from the bank,
etc.)
Regardless of the type of discrimination in question, they all have something in
common: unequal treatment of certain groups based on belief that some groups
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deserve a “better” treatment, because they are somehow superior. This clearly
violates the basic right of equality, indicating that:

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All individuals are equally valuable and should be treated equally
Individual members in different groups should be shown equal respect
Institutions in the society should be democratic, i.e. should provide
equal opportunities and possibilities
III Constructive Approach to Cultural Differences Or Differences as
an Impulse for Development
DEVELOPMENT OF MULTICULTURAL SENSITIVITY
From Ethnocentrism to Ethno-relativism
Milton Bennett (1986) presented a model describing the phases in the
development of multicultural sensitivity, allowing us to better understand the
mechanisms operating during the gradual shift from ethnocentrism, or exclusive
focusing on own culture while perceiving all other cultures negatively, to ethnorelativism, or acceptance and respect for differing cultural realities. Overcoming
ethnocentrism and acquiring appreciation for other cultures and their idiosyncrasies
represents a prerequisite for successful multicultural education, and this process,
according to Bennett, occurs in six phases:
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Denial – Denial could transpire in the cases when, due to isolation (physical or
cultural), interactions and contacts with different cultures are precluded. In this
phase, the individual denies that cultural differences exist, and even if it allows
itself to notice certain differences that are culture-based, it continues to deny
any possibility of discrimination based on cultural differences. The individual
acts as if the problem does not exist.
Resistance – In this phase, a person does observe the differences, but it
perceives them as something threatening and intimidating. Anything differing
from own culture is labeled as negative, therefore this phase is characterized
by development of “negative stereotypes”. These stereotypes pertain to other
gender, race, religious affiliations, nationality, or any other observable
difference. Additionally, this phase is characterized by assumptions about the
superiority of own culture, sometimes even without the negative labeling of
others, but fervent enough to provide the feelings of security and protection for
the person.
Minimization – This is the last stage of the ethnocentric phase – an attempt to
preserve the distinctiveness of own cultural environment by “hiding” the
differences and emphasizing the similarities. Cultural differences are noted
and are not labeled negatively any more, but they are seen as insignificant
relative to the considerably more important cultural similarities.
Acceptance – Acceptance of cultural differences represents an important step
from ethnocentrism to ethno-relativism. At this stage, the person accepts and
respects cultural differences. These differences are seen as an essential and
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natural part of human inter-relations. The differences are not valued; simply,
their existence is acknowledged. There are two levels of acceptance:
1. Acceptance of differences on the behavioral level, including the language,
communication styles, non-verbal symbols, etc.
2. Acceptance of less obvious cultural characteristics, like the value systems,
norms, interpretations of reality, etc.
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
Adaptation – The most common form of adaptation is empathy, i.e. the
attempt to place oneself into “other person’s shoes” and view the world from
their perspective. Doing this allows us to understand the views of the world
that are completely different than ours, and to truly understand what is valued
in other cultures, even though they are drastically different than ours. The
second form of adaptation is cultural pluralism, or the ability to identify with two
or more cultures, their value systems, norms and views of the world.
Integration – Integration represents incorporation of ethno-relativistic
principles into own personal identity. The person at this stage is not only
multicultural in the sense that it is sensitive to other cultures, but, at the same
time, it is capable of separating, distancing itself from any possible cultural
context (including its own). The person has a strong sense of belonging to own
culture, but that does not prevent it to introspect own experiences, values, and
views of the world independent from any cultural context. That person is
simultaneously part of its own cultural context and completely independent
from it.
From Mono-cultural to Multi-cultural Education
The model presented by Sonia Nieto (1998) describes the possible phases of the
educational process development: from mono-cultural approach, or consideration
and appreciation for only one dominant culture, to multi-cultural approach, or
appreciation and respect for various other cultures, as well as understanding the
ways they infuse and intertwine among each other.
MONOCULTURALISM
TOLERANCE
ACCEPTANCE
RESPECT
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AFFIRMATION, SOLIDARITY AND
CRITICISM
1. Monoculturalism means that all the structures and contexts presented and
offered in one environment, community, and society reflect the dominance and
supremacy of one culture.
2. Tolerance at this stage means “tolerating” differences. Being tolerant at this
stage means that, even though the feelings of jealousy, spite and resignation
toward other groups do exist, the members of that group are accepted, though
unwillingly. The differences are just endured, rather than truly accepted and
respected.
3. Acceptance means that the differences are recognized, but their importance
is neither minimized nor emphasized. The level of acceptance is very
important, since it represents the first step toward multi-cuturalism.
4. Respect means that the differences are accepted, appreciated and valued as
something indispensable and positive. Cultural differences are seen as the
foundation in many occurrences and processes in the society.
5. Affirmation, solidarity and criticism represent the level in which a multiple
exchanges of cultural differences take place, with the purpose to increase the
integrated development and meliorate the functioning of the community and
society as a whole. At this stage, as opposed to other stages, the conflict is
not avoided, but rather welcomed as an opportunity to facilitate further
development and progress. Communities and nations at this stage emphasize
equality and societal justice. Since these basic values among various cultural
groups could be diametrically opposite, the conflict is often times preordained.
Affirmation, solidarity and criticism are rooted in the belief that culture does not
represent a rigid, permanent, unchangeable category, but is instead submitted
to constant changes, reevaluations and revisions. Passive conformity with any
cultural “status quo” is, therefore, inconsistent and could result in halting
cultural development on some romanticized or exotic stage of development. In
order to break out of the constraints of any cultural ties so to truly understand
the differences between cultures, it is necessary to first examine and critique
one’s own culture as well as other cultures, which, in essence, represents the
base for any multicultural education.
Multicultural Education
Multi-cultural education empowers individuals to understand, validate and
appreciate cultural differences and similarities, as well as to acknowledge the
contributions of various ethnic, racial and socioeconomic groups to the society.
Different cultures are depicted objectively, in a manner that emphasizes the
contributions and values of each cultural group.
When postulating a multicultural education, it is important to discard the
popular conception of culture rooted in the belief that culture represents a fixed
22
entity, that individuals are only passive “marionettes” shaped by that culture, and
that everything these individuals do or think is determined by various cultural
patterns (one-way relationship), as well as that the term culture pertains only to
dominant culture in the society.
The goal of multicultural education is to develop multi-cultural competencies on
several levels:
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The level of knowledge and information – learning the language,
familiarizing with customs, norms, and values of other cultures, as well as
their specific view on the world; learning about the mechanisms and
processes responsible for formation and maintenance of stereotypical
views, prejudices and various forms of discrimination and oppression.
Individual level, the level of individual competencies – self-reflecting,
thinking about self, own identity and relationship toward various groups we
belong to, viewing oneself from the perspective of others, self-regulating
own behavior within the multicultural context, developing critical thinking,
i.e. relating critically toward the outside reality;
The social competencies level – learning the social, communicational
and constructive problem-solving skills within a multicultural context,
developing empathy, support and solidarity, increasing the tolerance for
uncertainty, team-working and cooperation within a multicultural context,
finding the allies for work on this type of issues.
The basic assumption of multicultural education is that people should interact “face
to face” and should maintain a constant contact (willingly or not) with representatives
of cultures different then their own.
In order to delineate multicultural education it is necessary to fulfill the following
preconditions:
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Exposure to interactions with other cultures and their representatives
Existing motivation for participation and engagement in this domain
Curiosity
Empathy
Knowing oneself and own culture
Accepting the complexity, contradictions and frustrations (tolerance for
ambiguity) unavoidable when interacting with other cultures
Multicultural learning must always be interactive, so that everyone could learn from
one another. Multicultural education could be implemented in various ways and could
significantly contribute to developing a society with strong sense of societal justice.
Multicultural sensitivity develops on three different levels;
1. The perception level – learning how to identify and perceive the differences
2. The attitudes and value systems level– learning to become cognizant and
deeply introspective about our own attitudes toward differences, and to
accurately identify our feelings about it
23
3. The behavioral level – learning how to behave appropriately in contacts with
other cultures and their representatives.
Basic assumptions of multicultural education are:

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
Culture is dynamic rather than static, which means that it changes
constantly and represents a complex historical product
Individuals participate in creating and altering the culture through
communication and interaction (it is a two-way relationship)
Culture represent a common guiding system for each society and all the
groups in that society, and it is contrived and communicated through a
specific repertoire of symbols (language, rituals, traditions, clothing,
home arrangements, etc.) that are familiar and common to all the
members of one culture, and determine the manner of their thinking and
behaving, as well as influence the development of their value systems,
which in turn allows them to more efficiently communicate and
cooperate with each other
Certain cultural patterns are transferable from generation to generation,
but could also be modified and tainted by individuals and the
predicament of the society.
Every individual contributes to the creation and duplication of culture –
not only the national culture, but also all other cultures (regional, age,
gender, sex, professional, etc.) because every person simultaneously
belongs to different sub-cultures, all of which influence the forming of
their personal identity.
IV Guidelines for Group Leaders
TEN WAYS TO MAKE IT EASIER FOR YOURSELVES
The field of multicultural education requires that those involved continuously work
on themselves so to assure the positive change in the wider social context. Every
participant represents a canvasser of change, but adults carry a greater responsibility
since they transmit the cultural values and shape the attitudes and value system of
future generations through the very process of education and upbringing.
In order to initiate the process of accepting and appreciating cultural differences,
and in order to learn effective ways to connect with each other on a personal, as well
as the cultural level, it is absolutely necessary to explore what we carry within
ourselves and what we bring into work/contact with others - our own value system,
our prejudices, assumptions, preferences, previous experiences, fears…
Contextual factor that represents a great barrier for this type of activity echoes in
the messages adults receive every day: “All children are the same, there are no
differences between them”, “All people are the same”, “There are no differences
between us, we are all human beings”, “The more we talk about a problem - sexism,
for example - the greater it becomes…”, “Teachers and others working with children
must not have any prejudices…”. All along, we neglect the fact that negating the
existence of prejudices or existence of differences does not automatically make them
disappear, and avoiding the discussion about problems does not resolve them.
24
The goal for every one of us is to confront what we carry within ourselves, to try to
understand the origins of our biased and one-sided thinking, and to learn to surmount
many of the things we consider “normal” (for example, if we consider it “normal” that
all children are the same, we will teach all children in the very same manner, ignoring
the uniqueness of every individual child and overlooking to adjust to their distinctive
learning characteristics, i.e. trying to teach the “average” child might result in teaching
no one). It is essential to be able to differentiate between the position that all people
are the same (the result of which is negation of differences that are the basic fact of
our existence) and the belief that all people are equal, meaning that, regardless of
their differences, all people should have the same rights and be assured equal
possibilities. It is also very important that, when working with people, we skillfully
adjust our approach to peculiarities of each individual and account for their
differences, simultaneously providing them with equal treatment and possibilities.
Paul Gorsky, a renowned researcher in this field, defined the ten strategies that
adults working with children could utilize to begin changing themselves in the area of
multicultural education in order to do their job more effectively. The list proposed by
this author is not a definite one, and should present a stimulus to continue further
self-exploration, thus, every one of us could extend and amend it.
1. Keep notes about your reactions to various situations and individuals.
Write down the behaviors that irritate and anger you… either/or make you
happy… Transcribe that into the language of observable behavioral
categories, and you might get the idea about what you could change. Think
about why you react the way you do. What could you do about it? Do not
ponder about the others, but rather yourself - what is it that you need and are
not receiving..? For example, instead of writing “They are sexist”, try to write
“They provide boys with wider possibility of choice and more freedom when
determining the field of academic studies”. “That angers me because I want all
children to have the same possibilities and freedom of choice”. Talk to your
students, colleagues and parents about that.
2. Ask your colleagues to give you the feedback about what they like in
your work, and what could be improved, so to benefit both you and
those you work with. Do not interpret their feedback as the critique of your
behavior, but rather the proposal and incentive for change.
3. Try to distinguish between “intent” and achieved “effect”. In situations
we are advantaged, we tend to preoccupy ourselves with our intentions, or
what we want to accomplish, rather than effects we do accomplish. For
example, we think more about what we want to teach someone, than about
the effects our teaching has on them – did they really learn something and
how useful that could be for them. It is important that we assume responsibility
for what we intend to do, and account for the effects we actually achieve. For
example, we will teach children/youth what their rights are, but will leave out
the ways they can exercise those rights.
4. Discard all the myths about insignificance of skin color, origin,
background, sex, abilities, etc. It is difficult to admit to oneself, but we often
feel better when we are surrounded by people who are similar to us than the
ones we perceive as different, which greatly affects our behavior. On the other
hand, negation of the importance of these differences transmits a hidden
message that we do not value equally all the aspects of their personality to the
25
people we interact with. For example, when we tell our Roma children that it is
unimportant to us that they are Roma, we are inadvertently telling them that
we are not really interested in their culture, language, traditions…
5. Be aware that you are also perceived both by the children/youth you
work with and by your colleagues through the prism of your own
background and belonging in certain cultural and social groups. Even
when you are advocating the interests of other groups, know that you are
carrying the label of your own group. Accepting this fact allows us to talk about
it openly and explore it in many different and often very constructive ways. For
example, when you state something, you could check with your colleagues
what they heard - “Did what I just said sound as an opinion of a dominant
culture member, or as a value I expressed because I truly believe in it?”
6. Induct contacts with as many people as possible from cultural groups
that are different from yours on the bases of race, ethnicity, culture, sexual
orientation, religion, special abilities and other. These relations should be
characterized by mutual trust, openness, free-spoken critique and two-way
sharing and learning. It is also important that we remain open to learn not only
from those less privileged than ourselves, but also form those belonging to our
own culture (dominant group), and the ones more privileged than we are,
since dominant groups, indeed, are the groups where the change is important
to occur. The relation toward marginalized groups should not be based on pity,
but rather true partnership. For example, you should not socialize with
individuals with disabilities because you feel sorry for them or you want to
verify “how difficult life is for them”, but because you want to be their ally in
their quest to achieve the liberties that they have the right to.
7. Talk to the children/youth/adults you work with. Ask them what they want
and need. Listen attentively, and be ready to change and learn from them if
necessary.
8. Practice what you preach. The values you are propagating and teaching
others should be compatible with your everyday conduct in personal and
professional life. Don’t forget that you represent a role model that epitomizes
for children/youth what it really means to appreciate differences and respect
others. For example, you cannot lecture about the right to freely express one’s
opinion, yet not allow children/youth to express opinions incongruent with your
own.
9. Accept responsibility for what you do and what is happening. Before you
search for those “culpable” around you, think whether something you are
doing or saying, might have caused the problem. For example, if someone in
your group does not want to participate, teases or offends others, first ask
yourself whether there is something you are doing or not doing that could have
exuberated such behavior.
10. Enjoy yourself and what you do. Learn to observe and interpret the conflicts
you have and the mistakes you make not as a failure, but rather opportunities
for change, improvement and everyday betterment of professional
performance and personal satisfaction with the job that you do.
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SKILLS AND TRAITS THAT NEED TO BE DEVELOPED IN ORDER TO
EFFECTIVELY CONDUCT MULTICULTURAL EDUCATON
Ruben, Bennett and Bloom (adapted from J.V. Reza) record the following skills
and traits that those working in the field of multicultural education should have:

Respect
In this domain, we are emphasizing the ability to convey respect for
every participant and his/her contributions to the work of the group. It is
necessary to be cognizant of various modalities used by different cultures
to demonstrate respect.
Some of the following questions could be helpful in defining the ways for
expressing respect:
1. In what way the participants’ age influences the styles for conveying
respect?
2. What gestures signify respect?
3. Should personal questions be asked, and how frequently?
4. How to express respect to individuals of different sex?

Tolerance for ambiguity
This pertains to one’s ability to react without frustration and animosity
when exposed to something new and unfamiliar. This skill is indispensable
for constructive relationships with individuals from different cultures, as well
as those whose value systems and beliefs are different than ours.

The relationship toward the process and participants
Focus in our work should be on the process of finding solutions, not
only on the outcome or the activity being performed. The group leader
should not pressure, coerce and offer beforehand created solutions, but
rather assist and guide the participants to search for possible solutions by
themselves. The participants should acquire certain knowledge and skills,
should feel as part of the process and attain importance for contributing to
the process. In order to provide real encouragement to every participant,
group leader should learn to listen very attentively and with an open-mind
and to acknowledge and appreciate what the participants are saying.

Acceptance without judgment
Group leader should maintain a positive attitude and encourage every
participant to openly share his/her experiences and thoughts, and, by doing
so, to actively participate in group activities.
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Group leader is the one who creates the atmosphere of understanding,
trust and approval, without judging, valuing, or critiquing.
Even when faced with less acceptable solutions/answers (and
sometimes the workshops that conjecture personal experiences will not
offer any solutions at all), the group leader should never punish or reward.
Every answer is utilized to create a new situation for learning, i.e. every
answer is considered valuable, since it could always be used to initiate
further exchange of opinions in the working group.

Validation of different perspectives
Different people explain the world around them in different ways. Every
one of us should be responsible to develop awareness that our view of the
world is ours only, and that others do not necessarily have to share the
same view. That is why it is so important to be extra cautious when
expressing our own observations, when making conclusions or stating that
what is “correct” in our culture is not “correct” or “true” in other cultures.
Every group leader should abide by the following: “This is my own
view/opinion. What is your view/opinion?” Thereat, he/she knows that there
simply is no one ultimate and final correct view.

Empathy
This pertains to the ability to put oneself in somebody else’s “shoes”. The
participants enjoy working with group leaders who possess the ability to
perceive reality form their perspective. Empathetic group leader listens with his
whole “being”, remains “here and now” presence, carefully listens to the group
or the individual, and reacts appropriately to what he/she hears. Such group
leader acknowledges participants’ resistance, their fears and anxiety. He/she
does not force participants to share if they are not willing to do so. On another
hand, he/she reveals delight for participants’ successes and expresses
appreciation for their contributions.

Diligence, patience
Group leader should be understanding and patient about the swiftness of
change processes occurring in the group. Every individual has its own
pace of progressing, and, since the process of change in this domain
includes the alteration on the value system level, everyone must be
allowed enough time. Also, the group leader should bolster participants’
patience when they, themselves, are displeased with the speed of their
own progress.

Flexibility
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This is the ability to quickly adjust expectations and planned activities to group
needs and expectations and learning styles of the participants. Some activities
could be very successful with one group, and not with the other.

Strong personal identity
Group leaders are often exposed to very unpleasant questions and
participants’ reactions, and for that reason it is important that they are well
aware of their own strengths and weaknesses as well as their own personal
identity. In that way they could serve as role models for participants, and
create honest, trusting and open relationships with participants.

Awareness about own background and cultural belonging
This is the ability to understand the mechanisms through which the culture
influences and determines the development and formation of each human
being, how it affects his/her value system, behavioral patterns and problem
solving styles. Good group leader is well aware of his culture, its norms and
values.

Enthusiasm, dedication and passion
With his/her own behavior, the group leader should inspire others to “practice
what they preach” and his every action should illustrate his own dedication to
the subject he is handling.

Tolerance for differences
The ability to tolerate differences (for example, different value systems, beliefs
and behaviors) is absolutely necessary to be effective in this field of work.
Group leaders should know that they will often be provoked by participants
(especially those rigidly sticking to the “norm”) and colleagues who disagree
with what they are trying to do just to test how tolerant to differences they
really are.

Openness for new experiences and people
Genuine openness for new experiences, new people and all things unknown is
necessary for multicultural learning. Competent group leader will demonstrate
this trait through the manner he speaks, behaves and reacts.

Liberalism (non- authoritarianism)
All members of the group, including the group leader, are treated as an equal
participant, meaning that the group leader, too, should participate and share
personal experiences. Throughout, the group leader should remain aware that
he/she always has something new and valuable to learn about this type of
work, various cultures and their interactions. He/she should also be sentient
that there is no such thing as “perfection” when one works with people, and
that there is always room for improvement and work on oneself.
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
Sense of humor
This characteristic is exceptionally important, because humor can help to
overcome difficult and unpleasant situations. Group leader should be able to
laugh at himself and his own actions, to notice the brighter side in every
situation and to laugh with others (never at others), as well as to incite others
to use their own sense of humor.
THE ROLES OF GROUP LEADERS
Group leaders in the realm of multicultural education have three very important
roles:
1. The planner – preparing the conditions and modality of work
2. The presenters – informing, inspiring, entertaining, describing. Presenting
is mostly a one-way communication, because certain knowledge and skills
are being transmitted to group participants. The presenters more frequently
answer the questions than pose them.
3. The facilitators – ask questions, facilitate discussions. Instead of posing
as the only bearer of knowledge and wisdom, the facilitator prepares the
conditions to contrive the process encouraging the participants to discuss
and address the problem. Facilitating means guiding without imposing
some specifically defined expected outcomes. This means that group
leader
must
be
keenly attuned
to
both
verbal
and
non-verbal
communication in the group, must be able to clarify objectives together with
participants, and gather information from every member of the group.
Competent group leader will skillfully combine in his work all of these roles,
and smoothly shift from one role to the other, simultaneously remaining aware
of participants’ needs, the activities being conducted, and the demands
presented by each concrete situation occurring during the training.
HOW TO CARRY OUT THESE WORKSHOPS
Before the workshop begins, it is necessary that you prepare in the following
manner:


Determine who the participants are, and learn as much as possible about
them
Determine whether you will work alone or as a pair (in this field of work, it is
easier to tackle issues when you work as a pair)
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


Look over the script, and familiarize yourself with the content of all planned
activities
Make sure you know where the sessions will take place, and how many
participants are expected
Prepare and bring all the materials required for group work
When the workshop begins:







Arrive at least half-an-hour before the work begins to check whether
everything needed is properly prepared
Create the positive and safe environment
Wait for participants and greet them as they enter
Begin work on time, especially the very first session, because this will
establish participants’ expectations for the future
If you are having trouble learning the script by heart, keep it nearby,
and consult it form time to time
Define the rules and present the plan of work during the first meeting
If necessary, remind the participants about the rules during work
After the workshop is concluded, ask the participants for feedback.
Literature:
1. Bell, L. A. (1997): Theoretical Foundations for Social Justice Education. U: Adams, M.,
Bell, L. A. & Griffin, P. (Eds.): Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. New York:
Routledge
2. Bennett, M. (1986): A Developmental Approach to Training for Intercultural Sensitivity.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations. No. 10, pp: 179 – 196.
3. Berry, J.W.(1998): Psychology of Aculturation: Understanding Individuals Moving Between
Cultures. U: Singelis,T.M. (Ed.): Teaching about Culture, Ethnicity & Diversity. Sage
Publications, Inc.
4. Bettman, E. H. (1998): European Trainer’s Manual for A classroom of difference, (An
International Anti Bias Education and Diversity Training Programme of the AntiDefamation League), New York, Anti-Defamation League a world of difference Institute
5. Klein, M. D. & Chen, D. (2001): Working with Children from Culturally Diverse
Backgrounds. Delmar: Thomson Learning
6. Nieto, S. (1998): Affirmation, Solidarity and Critique: Moving Beyond Tolerance in
Education. U: Lee, E., Menkart, D. & Okazawa-Rey, m. (Eds.), Beyond Heroes and
Hollidays: A Practical Guide to K-12 Anti-Racist, Multicultural Education and Staff
Development. Washington DC: Network of Educators on the Americas.
31
7. Olport, G. (1969): Sklop i razvoj ličnosti. Beograd: Kultura
8. Sue,D & Sue, D. (1990): Counseling the Culturally Different: Theory and Practice. New
York: John Wiley &Sons.
9. Schniedewind N. and Davidson E.(1999): Open minds to equality (A Sourcebook of
Learning Activities to Affirm Diversity and Promote Equity – Second Edition), Allyn and
Bacon, A Viacom Company, Needham Heights, MA 02194
10. Reza, J. V. (2000): Facilitators` Training Manual – Education for Social Justice: A
Program for Adults. (interni material)
11. Trikić, Z.(2003): About Prejudices and Stereotypes, in the manual Hrnjica, S. Et al..:
Introduction to Compensatory Education, I play and learn, Beograd, Association for
Improwement of Roma Settlements
12. Vranješević, J. i Trikić, Z. (2000): “Naither Black nor White – Education againtst
prejudices fostering tolerance and respect for diversities (internal material)
13. York, S. (1991): Roots and wings. Affirming culture in early childhood programs. St. Paul,
MN: Redleaf Press
INTERNET LINKOVI
1. Gorski Paul
htt://www.edchange.org/mulicultural/index.html
2. Leithwood A. Kennet(Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Ontario)
and Riehel Carolyn (University of North Carolina at Greensboro)
www.cepa.gse.rutgers.edu/whatweknow.pdf/
3. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory http://www.ncrel.org/
4. Multicultura Games
www.wilderdom.com/games/
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