Chapter 6: Cultural Identities and Landscapes
Ⅰ、Learning Objectives
By reading this chapter you will be able to:
1、Define how culture, society, and civilization are defined and differentiate from each other.
2、Understand how geographers characterize cultural regions and landscapes.
3、Understand the relationship of language to culture and nationalism（['næʃənə,lɪzəm] n. 爱国主义; 民族
主义.）
4、Describe the main world religions and the history of their global distribution.
5、Understand the relationships of religion and culture, religion and society, and how religion is
associated with sacredness （sacred ['sekrɪd]
contestation （contestation [,kɔntes'teiʃən]
adj. 宗教的; 神圣的， 受崇敬的; 不可冒犯的）and
n. 论争,主张）of
the
space.
Ⅱ、Chapter Summary
The concepts of culture and society are intimately（['ɪntɪmɪtlɪ] adv.密切地）related and used by
geographers to differentiate qualities of different groups of people. Culture is understood as the human ability
to accumulate experiences, develop ideas from these experiences, and subsequently act on them. Society is
defined by the interrelationships that connect members of a culture. Culture includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, customs, laws and other habits formed by the individuals within a society.
Human geographers perceive variations in culture spatially, and culture and society become important
groupings of study within this view: human geographers must be careful and selective of which human or
social scale they study.
The evolution of culture is also intimately related to the concept of civilization, which is the outcome of
acquiring and using technologies. Civilization has been explained due to differences in physical geography,
class, climate, and coercion and territorial expansion. Whatever the explanation, different civilizations have
resulted in different cultural regions, as well as different impacts on and interactions with the environment,
which is what primarily interests human geographers. Geographers have tried to explain the global distribution
of culture and civilizations, both past and present. They have used these to explain the boundaries of regions,
which are different physically, economically, and culturally. In defining the world in this way, human
geographers also track cultural adaptation, the process by with people adapt to their environment through the
use of technology, organization, and ideology.
Two factors which define culture are language and religion. Both of these have strongly affected the
formation of nations’ identities and their global movement can display spatial differences in power.
Language is of interest to human geographers as it is a cultural variable and reflects a culture’s
accumulation of experience in different landscapes. Language also helps geographers identify and delimit
cultural groups. This is especially useful in showing the interactions between cultures and the movement of
cultures spatially. As well, the rise or disappearance in use of a language can indicate a change in a culture’s
population or economic or cultural power. Geographers count the number of languages in a region but also
classify languages into broader groupings to indicate both the variation of languages and the movement of
cultural groups. Geographers can also track the successive movement of cultural groups through the changing
names of locations by identifying which language the name is from.
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Religion is the other fundamental cultural element geographers’ track. As a reflection of culture, religion
consists of a shared set of beliefs which are displayed through behaviour, text, habits, symbols, and landscapes.
Religions shape landscapes in a variety of ways. Similar to language groups, geographers track the world
distribution of religions and their movement, as well as the dominance of religions in certain regions. Also, as
a shared system of beliefs and practices, religion can be related to civilizations and can explain the various
relationships within religions, between religions, and between religious followers and their environment.
Religious beliefs can account for agricultural practices and the preference of animals for domestication.
However, with globalization and migration, many boundaries of language and religion are becoming
blurred. Further, with increased information technologies and travel, experiences are located in a variety of
places simultaneously, resulting in a ‘shrinking world’. These changes are perceived in a variety of ways: with
optimism for the potential transformation towards hybrid cultures or with scepticism regarding the potential for
an increasing intensity of clashes between cultures.
Ⅲ the key points of the text
1、A World Divided by Culture?
The world is characterized by cultural diversity（文化多样性） and increasing cultural interaction. At the same
time, culture has been responsible for creating barriers and conflicts between cultures. Culture and society, as
two different notions, help us look at the evolution of both and begin the development of our regional studies
approach within the view of the landscape.
Introducing Culture
Culture is the human ability to develop ideas based on experiences and then act on these ideas.
Once the cultural framework of attitudes and behaviours is formed, there is a tendency to follow its norms even
when they are inappropriate. To re-engineer（重新塑造）themselves, humans need to generate new values.
2、Humans in Groups
The term ‘culture’ is associated with anthropology（[,ænθrə'pɔlədʒi:] n. 人类学）, while ‘society’ is
related to sociology（[,səusi'ɔlədʒi] n. 社会学）. Both disciplines study human behaviour at the group
scale. Anthropology focuses on non-Western and rural issues, while sociology focuses on Western and
urban issues.
Human Geography and Culture
Culture has been grouped into two categories. Non-material culture has two components: key attitudinal
values (mentifacts) and rules involved in the process of group formation (sociofacts).
Material culture consists of all elements associated with people’s livelihood(生计，谋生手段) (artifacts，
=artefacts 人工制品，手工艺品). While anthropologists study human cultures, human geographers study
the landscape expression of these cultures.
Human Geography and Society
According to Giddens, culture refers to a way of life of the members of a society, while society refers to
the interrelationships that connect individuals as members of a culture. There is no clear distinction
between the terms and they are often used interchangeably. For example, North American geographers
use ‘culture’, while European geographers use ‘society’.
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The Importance of Human Scale
Human scale varies from the individual to the world population. The selection of human scale depends on
the type of study being conducted.
Philosophical emphasis and human scale
The humanistic school believes in the need for a study of both individuals and groups.
Marxist, traditional cultural geography, and contemporary social theory favour the use of the group scale.
3、The Evolution of Culture
Early Human Groups
The development of language, tool-making, and the use of fire initiated（initiate [i'niʃieit] vt. 开始，使初
步了解）the formation of early social groups. These groups, varying in size from 10 to 100 people, were
probably connected by kinship（kinship ['kɪn,ʃɪp] n. 亲属关系）and the group authority belonged to the
family heads. These groups existed until the agricultural revolution.
The Beginnings of Civilization
Civilization appeared with the development of agriculture and can be defined as an urban way of life.
There are three main theories about the development of civilization.
The hydraulic ([hai'drɔ:lik] adj. 水力的， 水压的) hypothesis（[hai'pɔθisis] n. 假说, 假设, 前提）
According to Childe, the use of irrigation increased agricultural productivity. Therefore, irrigation led to
productivity, which in turn led to civilization. Wittfogel, however, argues that civilization came into being
in response to the need for irrigation; civilization led to irrigation and increased agricultural productivity.
Coercion([kəu'ə:ʃən] n.强迫，威压，高压政治)
The development of agriculture and civilization resulted from increases in population pressure on land.
Population increases were accommodated（[ə'kɔmədeit] vt. 容纳， 使适应, 顺应）through forceful
expansion into new territories.
Marxism
Civilization is a product of the class differences that often prelude（['prel,ju:d] n. 开端, 序曲, 前奏） class
conflicts. The more dominant class controls economic life, and therefore further accentuates（
[æk'sentʃu:,eɪt] vt. 使突出；强调，使恶化，使严重） class differences.
Early Civilizations
Individual changes and cultural advances provided each early civilization with a distinctive character;
however, agriculture and urbanization were common to all groups. With the exception of China, all of the
other civilizations have faded away, either because of natural factors or conflicts.
4、Cultural Regions
Different cultures have emerged due to the various physical environments and different human
landscapes. Cultural regions may be grouped together on the basis of some criteria of inclusion such as
time period, spatial scale, or boundary lines.
World Regions
Toynbee（汤因比） identified 26 civilizations as responses to the past and present environment. Each
group was classified as ‘arrested’ or ‘abortive’.
In 1951, Russell and Kniffen identified seven unique cultural regions that represented human–land
interrelations. While Russell and Kniffen’s regions are valuable for the general understanding of the
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world, they are problematic（[,prɔblə'mætɪk] adj. 成问题的;有疑问的;阴暗的） because they lack accuracy
in terms of scale.
North American Regions
North America has been classified into 16 regions on the basis of broad physical, economic, and cultural
factors.
A regionalization of the United States
Zelinsky stated that the early settlers of an area designed the social and cultural geography of an area. He
defined five regions: West, Middle West, South, Midland, and New England. The first four regions have
been further subdivided on the basis of their multiple culture sources.
A regionalization of Canada
Canada has been divided into six regions: the North, British Columbia, Atlantic and Gulf, Interior Plains,
Great Lakes–St Lawrence lowlands, and the Canadian Shield（加拿大地盾）.
5、The Making of Cultural Landscapes
All cultures share certain similarities (acquiring food, building shelter, and reproduction), but they differ
in the methods used to obtain the goals.
Culture evolved in close association with the physical environment, but over time it gradually
disassociated itself. An important change was the shift to a capitalist mode of production. This shift
separated humans from the physical environment and developed increased cultural attachments.
Cultural Adaptation
Cultural adaptation of humans to the environment can occur at an individual or group level. The changes
are often technological, organizational, or ideological（[,aɪdi:ə'lɔdʒɪkəl] adj. 观念学的;意识形态的;思想体系
的）
, and are reflected in the development of new solutions and improvement of previous（['pri:viəs] adj 先
前的, 以前的 过早的, 过急的） ideas. Cultural adaptations also include changes in attitudes and behaviour.
There are three theories to explain cultural adaptation.
Culturally habituated predisposition（[,pri:dɪspə'zɪʃən] n. 1 倾向;素质 2 易染病体质）
According to Spencer （['spensə] 斯宾塞）and Horvath, cultures are characterized by specific beliefs and
psychological mindsets that lead to the development of a particular type of cultural landscape.
Cultural preadaptation（['pri:,ædæp'teiʃən] n. 预适应(性)）
Changes are already made, even before a particular cultural group moves into a new area.
Core, domain, and sphere
Meinig proposed that landscape could be categorized into three areas: core (the hearth（[hɑ:θ] n. 壁炉前的
地板; 炉床, 壁炉边）), domain (where culture is dominant), and sphere (the periphery（[pə'rɪfəri:] n. 1 外围
;边缘 2 神经 末梢周围）). According to Meinig, cultural identity decreases as distance from the core
increases.
6、Language
Both language and religion are cultural variables that relate to various facets（['fæsit] n. 1 (宝石或首饰的)
小平面, 面 2 (事物的)面, 方面）of human geography. Often these are the basic characteristics by which
groups differentiate themselves.
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A Cultural Variable（['vɛəriəbl]
adj. 变化的, 可变的, 易变的 n. 可变因素; 变数）
Language has served as a unifying cultural variable: people within different groups in different
environments speak the same language. It is a useful variable that creates broad definitions of groups and
regions. Spatial variations in language are partly influenced by variations in the physical and human
environments.
How Many Languages?
There are currently about 6,000 major languages in the world today. Languages die due to two main
reasons: discontinuation of a language with few speakers (due to social implications
（[,ɪmpli'keiʃən] n. 1 卷入, 牵连 2 含义, 暗示, 暗指）), and the need for a major language in order to
communicate across cultures.
Classification and Regions
Nineteen language families had been classified prior to early European expansion. No new language has
come into effect because not enough time has elapsed（[i'læps] vi. (时间)消逝, 过去）. Also, because the
groups that moved have remained in touch with their original groups, the original bond has been
maintained.
The largest language family is the Indo-European, while Mandarin（['mændərɪn] n. 1 (满清的)官吏 2 (M-)
中国的官话(北京话)）is the most spoken language in the world.
The Indo-European language family
Researchers believe that the proto-Indo-European language emerged between 6000–4500 BCE in either
the Russian steppe（[step] n. 干草原） region or in the Danube（['dænju:b] n. 多瑙河） valley.
The first Indo-Europeans to settle in what is now England were the Gaelic-speaking （['ɡeilik] n. 盖尔语）
people (2500 BCE). A series of invasions led to major diversification of the English language and today
contains approximately 500,000 words. Since the fifteenth century, the English language and other
Indo-European languages have been spreading to other parts of the world.
Language and Identity
Language is the fundamental basis of identity for many groups. As a result, language is closely linked
with nationalism.
A common language aids communications. Different languages create barriers and frictions（
['frikʃən] n. 1 摩擦 2 冲突, 不和） between groups.
Language and nationalism
There are two reasons why language is considered a demarcating element for national boundaries:

A common language helps communications.

It is a reflection of a ‘group-ness’ that represents a national identity.
Before the nineteenth century, boundaries between countries and languages rarely matched.
Multilingual states
Several European countries exist that do not follow linguistic solidarity, for example, Switzerland and
Belgium. Canada is also multilingual.
Minority languages
Minority languages without official status generally disappear. Minority-language speakers often attempt
to establish a separate state in order to achieve official status for their language.
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Communications between different language groups
Lingua franca （['liŋɡwə'fræŋkə] n. 混合语 ）was developed to allow communications between different
trade groups (for example, African and Arab).
Pidgin（['pidʒin] n. 混杂语言,事务） languages are common in areas of colonial activity. Creoles
（['kri:əul] 克利奥尔人的 ） are the first generation of native speakers who speak a pidgin language.
In 1887, Esperanto（[,espə'ræntəu] n. 世界语） was introduced in order to begin a single universal
language, but it was unsuccessful.
Language in Landscape
Naming Places
Language, and its role in the formation of place names, plays an important role in landscape geography.
An analysis of place names provides information about the spatial and social origins（['ɔridʒin] n. 起点;
来源）and the cultural history of the settlers. Place names may be local or regional in scale.
The ‘Great American Desert’
The ‘Great American Desert’ is an example of how language influences the human landscape. The Great
Plains region was described as a desert. Early settlers bypassed the region in favour of the west coast.
This decision resulted in delayed settlement within the Great Plains region.
Landscape in Language
There is a relationship between language distribution and physical environments. The vocabulary of any
language reflects the physical region in which the speaker lives. Additionally, language portrays class and
gender, and the selection of words and pronunciations reflects social origins.
7、Religion
Religion comprises a set of beliefs that initiate moral and ethical（['eθikəl] adj. 伦理的; 道德的）rules that,
in turn, influence human behaviour.
Women make up the majority of followers of any religion. At the same time, most religions forbid
women from serving in a formal religious role.
Men have played more dominant roles in religions such as Hinduism（['hɪndu:,ɪzəm] n. 印度教）,
Christianity（[, krɪsti:'ænɪti:] n. 基督教）, and Islam（[ɪs'lɑ:m] n. 1 伊斯兰教 2 (总称)伊斯兰教徒,穆斯林）.
Classification and Regions
There are two principal ‘hearth’ areas: Indo-Gangetic （[ɡæn'dʒetik] adj. 恒河的,沿恒河的）and Semitic
（[sə'mɪtɪk] adj. 1 闪米特(尤指犹太)人的 2 闪语族(包括希伯来语、阿拉伯语)的）.
The four largest religions, in terms of their numbers, are Christianity (33 per cent of the world
population), Islam (20 per cent), Hinduism (13 per cent), and Buddhism (6 per cent). Christianity and
Islam have spread over large areas, while Hinduism has not spread beyond its point of origination, and
Buddhism has relocated to China.
Ethnic religions
The largest ethnic（['eθnik] adj. 1 种族的, 部落的 2 某文化群体的） religion is Hinduism. Hinduism has no
code of belief, is polytheistic（[pɔlɪθi:'ɪstɪk] adj. 多神崇拜的）, and is closely associated with the caste
system（种姓制度）. It has initiated several offshoots(['ɔ:f,ʃu:t] n. 枝条,枝杈) such as Jainism(['dʒainizəm]
and Sikhism(['si:k,ɪzəm] 锡克教) . The second largest ethnic religion is
Judaism(['dʒu:deiizəm] n. 犹太教), which is monotheistic (adj. 一神论的). Other ethnic religions include
n. 耆那教（印度非婆罗门教的一派）)
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Shinto(['ʃintəu] n. 日本的神道教,1945 年前为日本国教), Taoism Taoism ['tɑ:əuizəm] n. 道教, and
Confucianism([kən'fju:ʃənizm] n. 孔教,儒教).
Universalizing religions
Buddhism
Buddhism, an offshoot of Hinduism, was the first universalizing([,ju:ni'və:səlaiz] vt. 使一般化,使普遍化)
religion founded by Prince Gautama(['ɡɑutəmə] n. 释迦牟尼之俗姓). The two main versions of Buddhism
are Theravada([,θerə'vɑ:də] n. 小乘佛教（主要流传于斯里兰卡、缅甸、泰国和柬埔寨）) and
Mahayana([,məhɑ:'jɑ:nə] n. 大乘佛教).
Christianity
Christianity—developed 600 years after Buddhism—is the second universalizing religion and is an
offshoot of Judaism. A major divide took place in 1054, resulting in the emergence of
Catholics(['kæθəlɪk] adj1 普遍的;广泛的;包容一切的. 2 宽容的) and Protestants(['prɔtistənt] n. 新教徒).
Islam
Islam, founded by Mohammad, is the third major universalizing religion. It is related to both Judaism and
Christianity, with Arabic elements. The two main branches of Islam are the Sunnis(['suni:] n. 〈伊斯兰〉逊
尼派教徒) and the Shiites(['ʃi:ait] n. 什叶派教徒) .
Religion, Identity, and Conflict
Urban areas generally reflect an indifference towards religion, though for the most part people have a
difficult time separating themselves entirely from religion.
Religion has often been the cause of divide between peoples and cultures, and many military conflicts
have resulted due to these divisions. Despite its ability to create conflict, religion also serves as a unifying
factor for groups, and is more resistant to external influences(外界影响)than language.
Religion as civilizations
Recent developments have created the tendency to link civilizations to religions (particularly, Christianity
and Islam). That link is then used as a base for human identity. This leads to serious problems when
universalizing religions spread different messages. For example, people in the West often fail to
distinguish between Islam the civilization and Islam the religion.
Religious Landscapes
Religion and landscape are interconnected for three reasons:

Beliefs about the environment are important to many religions.

Religion impacts land use.

Many religions use landscapes to express their identity.
Religious perspectives on humans and nature
Often religion serves as an agent between humans and nature. Christianity, for example, believes in
human dominance of the physical environment, while Eastern religions consider humans as a part of
nature. Some religions assign special importance to certain physical features.
Religion and the use of land
Religious beliefs in the use of land, plants, and animals can affect the regional economy. For example,
pigs are common in Christian economies and absent from Islamic and Jewish（['dʒu:ɪʃ] adj. 犹太人的;犹太
教徒的） economies. When different groups assign the same importance to a particular place it is not
unusual for a conflict to occur.
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Religious symbols in landscape
Religious symbols form a part of the visible landscape (temples and churches). Sacred structures are often
important as both religious and tourist centres. Land is also used for building shrines （[ʃrain] n. 圣地, 圣
坛, 神圣场所）and burying the dead.
8、Cultural Globalization
Nations combine local identities to form larger national identities. This has not always been an easy
process.
Globalization sees a homogenous global culture replacing all the local cultures. This can be seen
occurring with the rapid spread of the Western culture to other parts of the world. Harvey states that
cultural globalization is fortifying（fortify ['fɔ:tifai] vt. 1 筑防御工事于; 筑堡于 2 增强; 强化(食品)） the
individuality（[,ɪndə,vɪdʒu:'ælɪti:] n. 个性, 个人特征, 特质） of local places.
One should note there is no one-way process for globalization. In terms of the degree of
interconnectedness between places and peoples, globalization is a fact, though some regions remain more
distinctive than others.
Ⅳ、Study Questions
1、Short Answer Questions
1. What are some of the debates that have arisen concerning the interaction between religion and
secularism in some societies?
Answer: Secularism tends to be more popular than religious belief in urban areas of the world.
Secularism comes into conflict with religion when people reject all religious beliefs and want those
beliefs to remain entirely separate from the state. The two beliefs can also come into conflict when
religious people are in positions of authority in secular societies and may not be able to separate their
religious beliefs from the decisions they make. Some of the issues affected are the subject of
evolution in education and debates over contraception, abortion, and capital punishment.
2. There are hundreds of religions globally but only three are considered to be universalizing. Why
do you think this is?
Answer: A universalizing religion is one which actively tries to convert more people to that religion.
The three religions which are considered universalizing are Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. The
universalizing trait of these religions can be seen by studying maps and considering how far these
religions have spread globally. Ethnic religions, on the other hand, are closely identified with ethnic
groups and it can be seen on maps that these religions do not tend to spread as far and are not,
therefore, considered universalizing.
3. How is language associated with national identity?
Answer: Language is associated with national identity in a variety of ways. For example, the official
language(s) of a country clearly defines which cultural group is in power. Common languages also
facilitate communication—hence, a common language might make it easier to define a nation’s
boundaries via its language boundaries. Multilingual states also exist; however, it is common for there
to be political instability due to tensions between language groups in these states. A nation may also
have unofficial, minority languages—lingua franca, a Creole or a pidgin. These may or may not be
recognized or facilitated by a nation’s government or members and, hence, may affect whether the
speakers identify with that nation’s identity or not.
4. Are regions changing as a result of cultural globalization?
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Answer: Cultural globalization is the process by which regions are becoming increasingly
interconnected through communications avenues such as news, television, and the internet.
However, whether this is affecting regions is difficult to measure, and therefore, contested. Some
regions have retained a distinctive cultural identity while remaining globally connected to other
regions. However, other regions have embraced globalized identities—for instance, through the
establishment of global franchises and the continued consumption of globally-produced products.
5. What does the global distribution of language tell geographers about culture and society?
Answer: The global distribution of language tells geographers how cultures have moved over time. It
also describes the immigration policies of some nations, as well as the prevalence of multiple
languages, or even which languages are dominant in various power structures.
2、Research Questions
1. What is the cultural landscape where you live? Research and describe the history of language
and religious beliefs where you are.
2. Do human geographers view cultural globalization as a positive or negative phenomenon in the
world?
3. How does language relate to culture? Can cultures exist without language? Does culture change
when new languages appear in a region?
4. When religion views space as sacred there can be both positive and negative outcomes. What
are these? Use examples to support your discussion.
5. Describe the relationship of language to landscape. How is landscape understood through language?
3、Links of Interest
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
http://www.unesco.org
Atlas of Canada People and Society
http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/peopleandsociety
World Atlas of Language Structures http://wals.info/
North American Religion Atlas http://www.religionatlas.org/
Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative
http://www.ecai.org/culturalatlasportal/CAB-RegionQdisplay.asp
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